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THE TEACHER'S 

Hand-book of Slojd. 



Published under the auspices of the 
SLOJD ASSOCIATION. 



TH E TE AC H ER'S I ^ 

-SI 

Hand-book of Slojd 

AS PRACTISED AND TAUGHT AT NAAS 

CONTAINING EXPLANATIONS AND DETAILS OF 
EACH EXERCISE. 



By OTTO SALOMON, 

Director of the Nads Seininarium. 
Assisted by CARL NORDENDAHL and ALFRED JOHANSSON. 



TRANSLATED AND ADAPTED FOR ENGLISH TEACHERS 

By MARY R. WALKER, and WILLIAM NELSON, 

.S"^. George s Training College, Edinburgh, 0/ the Manchester Schools for the Deaf 

and Dujnb. 



WITH OVER ISO ILLUSTRATIONS AND PLATES. 



SILVER, BURDETT & CO., 

PUBLISHERS, 

BOSTON, NEW YORK, CHICAGO. 

1892. 



PREFACE TO THE SWEDISH EDITION. 



A DESiEE has for some time been expressed in various quarters for a 
Hand-Book of Slojd, written from the educational point of view. There 
have been many indications, especially in connection with Slojd carpen- 
try, that teachers are not well enough acquainted with the tools em- 
ployed to select and manage them properly ; and a degree of uncertainty 
seems to prevail regarding the right method of executing the exercises. 
Now, it is true that no one can acquire this knowledge from boohs ; the 
way to acquire it is by practical, personal experience. Yet, to retain this 
experience, and apply it, is partially a matter of memory, and, therefore, 
systematically arranged directions are capable of rendering aid which is 
not to be despised. A hand-book like the present does not, and could 
not, supersede personal experience at the bench, or render a course of in- 
struction unnecessary. Its sole object is to supplement and complete 
the notes which every conscientious student takes during such a course. 
Its aim is, therefore, chiefly to strengthen and confirm knowledge already 
acquired ; but, though it is thus limited in scope, and, on this account, 
perhaps to be regarded as in some respects incomplete, the writers 
venture to express the hope that it will be welcomed by many teachers. 

Books are, perhaps, more frequently published before their time than 
after it ; and although there have been numerous opportunities for observ- 
ation in the province of Educational Slojd during the last eighteen years 
(the Slojd Institution at Naas having begun operations in 1872), the 
writers are nevertheless uncertain whether the time has really yet come 
for the publication of definite directions ; or, at least, whether their know- 
ledge of the subject is yet complete enough to justify their appearance 
in print. But, if they have been premature, the sole reason is to be 
found in their desire to satisfy a want, which becomes every year more 
pressing. 

The views expressed in the book are, for obvious reasons, in full ac- 
cordance with the system of instruction followed at Naas. They are the 
outcome of careful observations, and of experiments tested by practice. 
Yet, even if these views should be confirmed by many teachers, the 
writers, knowing that opinions are divided in the matter of instruction in 
Slojd, as in most other questions, are fully prepared for adverse criticism. 
Whether this criticism be justified or not, of one thing they are certain, 
and that is, that in all honesty of purpose and strength of conviction 



IV. PREFACE. 

they have striven to fulfil a far from easy task. They trust that others 
with greater ability will succeed them and do it better. So little atten- 
tion has hitherto been paid to the subject in question that it has been 
necessary to generalise and draw conclusions almost exclusively from 
personal experience. But their motto has been — " Prove all things, hold 
fast to that which is good " ; and much that in the beginning and in the 
light of comparatively limited experience met with their approval, has, 
on closer examination, been rejected or modified. 

But, though this hand-book is necessarily the outcome chiefly of 
personal observation and experience, the writers have to some extent 
been able to avail themselves of the knowledge of others, and to refer to 
competent authorities. This applies especially to Chapter II., for the 
contents of which frequent reference has been made to the writings of 
Karmarsch, Thelaus, and others. The Plates at the end, and most of 
the Illustrations m the body of the book, are executed from original draw- 
ings made for the purpose. 

In order to keep within due limits, much has been omitted which, per- 
haps, ought to have been included. Whether or not, on the other hand, 
some things have been included which ought to have been omitted, must 
in the meantime be left an open question. 

The parts taken by the respective authors are as follows : — Chapter I. 
has been written by Otto Salomon ; Chapters II., III., and IV., by Carl 
Nordendahl, who also undertook all arrangements connected with the 
illustrations ; and Chapter V., by Alfred Johansson. Looked at as a 
whole, however, this little book is the product of united labour, and it 
contains nothing which is not the result of diligent interchange of thought. 



TRANSLATORS' PREFACE. 



This Hand-book was written originally for Swedish people, and in ac- 
cordance with the conditions which prevail in Swedish schools ; but the 
presence of a large body of English teachers at the Autumn Slojd Course 
at.Naas has testified for the last four years to the interest taken in the 
subject by English people, and the latest modifications of the English and 
Scotch Codes as regards manual training, point to the introduction at no 
distant date of systematic instruction in some branch of manual work in 
our state-aided schools. It has therefore seemed desirable that this 
Hand-book of Wood Slojd should be translated for English readers with 
any modifications necessary to make it suitable for English teachers and 
students. These modifications consist partly of the omission of matter 
bearing on conditions peculiar to Sweden, and partly of the addition to 
the text of certain paragraphs, which seemed necessary from an English 
point of view. Nothing has been taken away or added without careful 
consultation with Herr Salomon, and without his approval. At the same 
time, as any additions to the original text have been made at the suggestion 
of the translators, and as they are responsible for them, these paragraphs 
have been enclosed in brackets as translators' notes. The whole trans- 
lation has been revised under the supervision of Herr Salomon and other 
competent judges at Faas, and the translators therefore trust that the 
work they have undertaken is a faithful representation of the views held 
and acted on at the headquarters of Educational Slojd. 

In giving this book to English readers, they feel, however, that one or 
two points of detail call for special explanation, particularly as these 
touch on the fundamental principles of educational Slojd, and as any 
misunderstanding as to details might lead to a more serious misunder- 
standing as to principles. One of these details is the use of the knife in 
educational Slojd. In the following pages the use of the knife is often 
recommended where the English carpenter would use the chisel, or some 
other special tool. The defence of the knife in such cases is to be found 
in the fact that, while it is the most familiar and the simplest tool which 
can be put into the hands of the pupil, it is full of potentialities in the 
hands of the intelligent worker, who can perform with it many exercises 
which the tradesman executes in a more mechanical way with some other 
tool. 

Again, directions are given which differ in other respects from those 
which the carpenter would give. The work of the slojder is often done 



VI. PREFACE. 

not only with different tools, but in a different order from that of the 
artisan. This inversion of order is a natural consequence of the principle 
that each article shall be executed entirely by the individual worker. 
Division of labour, though necessary from the tradesman's point of view, 
is not permitted in Slojd, deadening, as it does, individuality, and reducing 
to a minimum the calls made on the intelligence. 

These and other deviations from the methods of the carpenter are made 
not in ignorance, but of set purpose, and have their grounds in the com- 
prehensive principle that all method in Slojd must aim in the first 
place at the physical and mental development of the pupil, and only at 
the production of articles in so far as this subserves the primary aim. 

In close connection with this stands the question of the place occupied 
in the system by the articles produced, i.e., by the models. Clear as this 
question appears in the light of the fundamental principles on which 
educational Slojd is based, the idea still seems to prevail to some extent 
that, if the principles are accepted, the Naas models must also be accepted 
unconditionally, and that the two stand and fall together. So far is this 
from being the case that, at the present time, one series of Naas models is 
gradually becoming English in its character, and only waits further sug- 
gestions from English teachers to become entirely so. The sole reason 
that it still contains models which do not entirely fulfil the condition of 
being familiar and useful in the homes of English children, is that English 
people have hitherto been unable to suggest satisfactory substitutes. The 
models are merely the expression of the system, and to carry out that 
system thoroughly they must be national in their character, and ought, 
therefore, to vary in their nature with the countries into which Slojd is 
introduced as a subject of instruction. 

The translators are at present engaged on an English edition of Herr 
Johansson's Manual of Directions for making the models mentioned 
in the preceding paragraph. This Manual, which will be ready for issue 
shortly, will complete the Handbook on the purely practical side. As 
the principles on which Slojd rests as an educational factor are neces- 
sarily very briefly dealt with in the Handbook, the translators are glad 
to learn that "The Theory of Slojd," the only authorised English edition 
of Herr "Salomon's Lectm-es, edited by an Inspector of Schools, will 
shortly appear, and will form a companion volume to this Handbook. 

As this translation, like the original, is the work of more than one 
writer, it remains to add that the book has been translated into English 
by Mary R. Walker, with the assistance of William Nelson on all points 
relating to technical knowledge and technical terminology. 



vn. 



Table of Contents. 



CHAPTER I. 
Introductory Remarks. 



PAGE 



I. Educational Slojd _ > _ _ 1 

II. The Teacher of Educational Slojd - - 2 

III. The special kind of Slojd recommended - - 6 

IV. Method - - . _ 9 
V. The Pupils - - - - - 17 

VI. The time given to instruction - - - 18 

VII. The Slojd-room - - - - ^ 18 

VIII. The position of the body during work - - 21 

IX. Some rules for the Slojd Teacher - - - 24 

CHAPTER II 
Wood or Timber. 

A. The Structure and Composition of Wood, Wood- 
cells, Wood-fibres, Concentric annual layers. Vessels or 
Air-tubes, Heart-wood and Sap-wood, the Pith and the 
Medullary Rays, the Sap, Water capacity - - 27 

B. The Changes which Wood undergoes - 35 

I. Changes in the water capacity. Shrinking, cracking, 

swelling - - - - - 36 

II. Means of preventing cracking and warping. Season- 
ing. Precautions necessary to prevent cracking and 
warping under special conditions - - 40 

III. The decay of timber. Means of preventing decay - 43 

C. Different kinds op Wood - - - 45 

I. Comparison of the qualities of diiferent kinds of wood. 
The strength, cleavage, hardness, toughness, elasticity, 
texture, colour, smell, weight, and durability of 
timber _ . _ _ 45 

II. Characteristics of different kinds of trees - - 51 

1. Needle-leaved trees. 2. Broad-leaved trees. 52 



Vlll. CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER III 
Tools. 

A. A Choice of Tools - - - - 59 

B. Appliances foe Holding the Work - - 62 

I. The Bench - - - - - 62 

II. Handscrews - _ . _ gg 

C. Setting Out - - - - - 70 

I. The Metre-measure _ .. _ 70 

II. The Marking-point - - - - 71 

III. The Marking-gauge - _ . 71 

IV. Compasses - - - - - 73 
V. Squares and Bevels. - _ _ 74 

VI. Winding-laths or Straight-edges - - - 76 

D. Tools used for Cutting up the Wood and making 

the Articles - - - - ■ - 77 

I. Saws - - - - _ 77 

1. Saws with Frames - - - - 82 
1. The Frame-saw. 2. The Bow-saw - - 82 

2. Saws without Frames - - - 85 
1. The Handsaw. 2. The Dove-tail saw. 3. The 

Tenon-saw. 4. The Compass-saw. 5. The 

Croove-saw - - - - 85 

II. The Axe ----- 87 

III. The Knife - . _ - 88 

IV. The Draw-knife - - - -89 
V. Chisels, Gouges, Carving tools, &c. _ - S9 

1. The Firmer-chisel, and the Mortise-chisel - 90 

2. Gouges - - - - 91 

3. The Spoon-gouge and the Spoon-iron - - 92 

4. Carving tools - - - - 92 
VI. Planes ----- 93 

1. Planes with flat soles : — 

1. The Jack-plane. 2. The Trying-plane. 

3. The Smoothing-plane. 4. The Rebate-plane 98 

2. Planes for the dressing of curved surfaces : — 

1. The Round. 2. The Hollow. 3. The Com- 
pass-plane - - - - 101 

3. The Old Woman's Tooth-plane, and the Dove-tail 

Filletster - - - - 102 



CONTENTS. IX. 

4. The Plough . - - - 104 

5. The Iron Spokeshave - - - 104 
VII. Files ----- 105 

VIII. Methods of janishing work - - - 106 
1. The Scraper. 2. Sandpaper. 

IX. The Brace and Bits. - - - - 108 

1. The Shell-bit. 2. The Centre-bit. 

X. The Mallet, the Hammer, the Hand-vice, Pincers, and 

Screwdriver - - - - 112 

E. The Grinding and Sharpening of Tools - - 115 

F. The Tool Cupboard - - - - 118 

CHAPTER IV. 

Jointing, 

A. Glueing - - - - - - 119 

B. Nailing ----- 123 
C Screwing together ----- 124 
D. Jointing by means of the formation of the parts of the joint 125 

CHAPTER V. 

I. The Exercises - - - - - 126 

Plates illustrating various positions, etc. - - 171 

IL The High School Series of Models - - 196 



List of tools required for different numbers of pupils - 204 

Index - - - - 205 

Price List of Tools, Benches, etc. . - . 214, 215 



FIRST CHAPTER. 

I ntroduetory Remarks. 
Educational Slojd. 

By educational slojd is meant the application of slojd to 
educational purposes. Slojd is not to be confounded with the 
work of the artisan — a mistake which may easily happen if 
the distinction is not sufficiently strongly emphasized. Speak- 
ing generally, the 'slojder' does not practise his art as a trade, 
but merely as a change from some other employment ; and in 
the nature of the articles produced, in the tools used in their 
production, in the manner of executing the work, etc., slojd 
and the work of the artisan differ very decidedly the one 
from the other. Slojd is much better adapted to be a means 
of education, because purely economical considerations do not 
come forward so prominently as must be the case with work 
undertaken as a means of livelihood. 

Educational slojd differs from so-called practical slojd, in- Educa- 
asmuch as in the latter, importance is attached to the work; in ^'°'^\ ""^ 

■■■ practical 

the former, on the contrary, to the worker. It must, however, siojd, 
be strongly emphasized that the two terms, educational and 
practical, ought in no way to be considered antagonistic to 
each other, as frequently happens in popular language ; for, 
from the strictly educational point of view, whatever is educa- 
tionally right must also be practical, and vice versa. When 
the educational and the practical come into conflict, the cause 
is always to be found in the pressure of adventitious circum- 
stances, e.g., the number of pupils, the nature of the premises, 
and, above all, pecuniary resources, etc. To make educational 
theory and practice coincide is an ideal towards which every 
teacher must strive. One man, perhaps, may be able to come 

A 



2 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

nearer to this common ideal than another, but everyone, as he 
runs his course, must have this goal clearly in view, and in 
every unavoidable compromise he must endeavour to make 
what ought to be done and what can be done come as close 
together as possible. 

Ttveaimof What, then, is the aim of educational slojd ? To utilise, as is 
«d«caaon- g^gggg^g^ ^1^^^^^ |.j^^ educative force which lies in rightly 

directed bodily labour, as a means of developing in the pupils 
physical and mental powers which will be a sure and evident 
gain to them for life. Views may differ as to what is to be 
understood by a " cultured " or an " educated " man, but how- 
ever far apart in other respects these views may lie, they all 
have at least one thing in common, i.e., that this much dis- 
puted culture always appears in its possessors in the form of 
certain faculties, and that therefore the development of faculty, 
so far as this can be directed for good, must enter into all 
educational efforts. This being the case, the influence of slojd 
is cultivating and educative, just in the same degree as by its 
means certain faculties of true value for life reach a develop- 
ment which could not be attained otherwise, or, at least, not 
in the same degree. Educational slojd, accordingly, seeks to 
work on lines which shall insure, during and by means of the 
exercise it affords, the development of the pupil in certain 
definite directions. These are of various kinds. As the more 
important, it is usual to bring forward : 'pleasure in bodily 
labour, and respect for it, habits of independence, order, 
accuracy, attention and industry, increase of physical 
strength, development of the power of observation in the eye, 
and of execution in the hand. Educational slojd has also 
in view the development of mental power, or, in other words, 
is disciplinary in its aim. 



required 
in the 
teacher. 



The Teacher of Educational Slojd. 

one can teach what he does not know 
proposition the validity of which cannot be called in question. 



The quali- 

™!w That no one can teach what he does not know himself is a 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



It is equally incontestable that it is by no means sufficient to 
be in possession of a certain amount of knowledge and dex- 
terity in order to follow with success the important and 
responsible calling of a teacher. Teaching is an art quite as 
difficult as any other, and for its practice certain qualifica- 
tions are demanded which are far from being in the possession 
of all. The teacher must not only know what he has to 
communicate, but also how he ought to do it. Nor is this 
all ; for if all instruction is in reality to be education, the 
teacher must rise from the instructor to the educator; he 
must not only understand how to impart knowledge and 
dexterity, but also how to impart both in such a manner that 
they make for the mental development of the pupil, especially 
with regard to moral training. But as we cannot give to 
others what we do not ourselves possess, it must necessarily 
follow that only he who is himself educated can have an 
educative influence over another. Therefore, exactly in pro- 
portion to the educative aim of the teacher does his person- 
ality enter as an important factor into the work of instruction. 
Now, since slojd is to be regarded more as a means of education 
than a subject of instruction, in the common acceptation of 
the term, the first demand of all made upon the teacher who 
undertakes it must be that he should feel himself to be an 
educator, and strive without ceasing to improve himself as 
such. This, however, is not sufficient. To be a teacher of 
educational slojd, it is necessary to be familiar with its aims, 
and with the means by which these are to be attained. One 
of these means is the possession of what is called technical 
dexterity, i.e., dexterity in the right use of tools, and in the 
accurate production, by their means, of articles involving the 
exercises required by the particular kind of slojd in question. 
The importance of this dexterity must neither be over-esti- 
mated nor undervalued. Unfortunately one or other of these 
errors is frequently committed. On the one hand it is 
maintained that if a person can only prove that he possesses Technical 
technical dexterity in sufficient degree, i.e., if he himself can ^^^^^^^^y- 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



produce good work, he thereby fulfils one of the most impor- 
tant requirements of a good slojd teacher. From this point of 
view the skilful artisan or "Slojder" would be the best 
teacher of slojd, because he can with justice be held to possess 
the best technical qualifications. Past experience, however, 
has shown that, as a rule, the skilful artisan or "slojder" is 
, not the best person to fill the responsible post of the slojd 
teacher. This follows from the very nature of the case. The 
artisan has acquired his technical dexterity in a totally different 
way, and for a totally different purpose, from what is required 
in educational sloj d. Technical dexterity is the principal thing 
with him. It is before every other consideration a source of 
income. In educational slojd, on the other hand, it is to be 
regarded only as one means among many whereby the 
teacher is able to bring an educative influence to bear on the 
pupils. The artisan who has great technical skill is too often 
asateacher tempted while teaching to use this skill in a way which may 
of Slojd. ^^ £qj, ^YiQ advantage of the work with which the pupil is 
occupied, but is certainly not for the advantage of the pupil 
himself. His " instruction " consists not infrequently of work 
which he does for the pupil, with results which are excellent 
from the economical point of view, but which are very 
objectionable in their educational aspect. Partly for this 
reason and partly because the artisan often does not under- 
stand how to maintain really good discipline with children ; 
and because, moreover, he is unacquainted with the general 
principles which apply to all instruction, it has been remarked, 
that where instruction in slojd is concerned, even a very 
capable artisan often falls far behind the results attained by 
those who are in his opinion little more than bunglers, and 
who may be far inferior to him in technical dexterity. At 
the same time, it is by no means intended to convey the idea 
that the skilled artisan may not be a good teacher of slojd — 
provided he understands the difference between slojd and his 
trade, and is in possession of the other necessary qualifications 
— but it is maintained that in such a case it is less because 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 5 

he is an artisan than in spite of it, for the first condition is 
that he must renounce the traditions of his craft, and become 
penetrated by educational ideas. 

But the truth here, as in so many other cases, lies between 
the two extremes. It is as hurtful to under-estimate tech- 
nical skill as it is to over-estimate it. Therefore, let no 
teacher imagine that he can successfully undertake instruc- o-nder- 
tion in slojd with slight and superficial knowledge on the ^^"^ 
purely technical side. It will soon and surely be made clear i^nportance 
to him that this is not the case. If he has not himself the dexterity. 
necessary technical dexterity for his purpose, it will be 
difficult, indeed almost impossible, for him to make clear to 
his pupils how they are to handle their tools and execute the 
work prescribed. Neither will he be able in an efficient way 
to supervise their work and criticise the quality of what they 
produce. The feeling of self-mastery which is so essential 
for the teacher when he stands face to face with his pupils, 
forsakes him, and the educative results which he intends to 
attain by means of slojd are diminished in proportion. It is 
most important that this should be laid down once for all, 
because some teachers possibly imagine that the technical 
skill necessary for teaching may be obtained by attending 
one or two slojd courses. This is by no means the case, and 
the organisers of such slojd courses are the first to understand 
and to insist upon the fact, that they can only aim at laying 
a foundation on which students may afterwards build by 
means of independent work. Just as little as one can learn 
to play on any instrument by merely taking lessons for a 
given time from a music teacher, can skill in the management 
of tools be acquired and maintained without continuous and 
earnest practice. The teacher who feels real interest in slojd 
must therefore, on his own account, endeavour to improve in 
respect of technical skill, and this will prove a two-fold gain, 
because the bodily exercise afibrds a healthy change from the 
mental work with which the time of the teacher is chiefly 
filled. 



HA'STDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



To summarise what has been said in the foregoing: the 
teacher of educational slojd must above all things have the 
habit of mind which is indispensable for the right perform- 
ance of the teacher's work ; his personality must be such as 
renders him fit to be a teacher ; he must know the objects of 
educational slojd and the means by which they are to be 
attained ; and finally, he ought to have sufficient dexterity to 
handle the tools and to execute accurately the work which is 
incidental to the course of instruction. These are the de- 
mands made on him ; may he strive to meet them. 

The special kind of Slojd recommended. 

Various materials, e.g., wax, clay, paper, pasteboard, wood, 
metal, &c., may be used in educational slojd. Wood, however, 
is for several reasons the most suitable material ; hence luoocl- 
slojd has been the most popular of all, both in schools and 
for private instruction. As the name implies, wood-slojd 
means "slojding" in wood. This, again, includes several 
different kinds of work. Amongst these, hov/ever, it is the 
Slojd so-called sldjd-carpentry which best fulfils the conditions 
carpentry, required when instruction in slojd is given with educational 
ends in view. It is adapted to the mental and physical 
powers of children. By enabling them to make a number of 
generally useful articles, it awakens and sustains genuine 
interest. It encourages order and accuracy, and it is com- 
patible with cleanliness and tidiness. Further, it cultivates 
the sense of form more completely than instruction in drawing 
does, and, like gymnastics and free play, it has a good in- 
fluence upon the health of the body, and consequently upon 
that of the mind. Additional advantages are, that it is 
excellently adapted for methodical arrangement, comprising 
as it does a great number of exercises of varying degrees of 
difficulty, some of which are very easy ; and that it gives a 
considerable degree of general dexterity by means of the 
many different tools and manual operations which it intro- 
duces. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



We must not confound slojd-carpentry with the work done Differeme 
by the carpenter, properly so-called. This is the more neces- sid^J.lar. 
sary because great confusion of ideas prevails on the subject ; pentryand 
not least, remarkably enough, amongst those who are in- ^carpZtry. 
terested in slojd, or give instruction in it. 

It must be borne in mind that although slojd-carpentry 
and ordinary carpentry have something in common, inasmuch 
as the same raw material (wood) is employed, and to some 
extent the same or similar tools are used, yet they differ one 
from the other in several very important respects. For 
example, the articles made in slojd-carpentry are in many 
cases quite different from those which fall within the province 
of the carpenter. The articles made in slojd-carpentry are 
differentiated partly by their smaller size, for the articles 
made in workshops are generally much larger ; partly by 
their form, for they are often bounded by variously curved 
outlines, whilst articles made by the carpenter are generally 
rectangular or cylindrical. This is especially shown in the 
case of the many different kinds of spoons, ladles, scoops, 
handles, &c., &c., which form such an important element in 
sloj d-carpentry . 

Further, though many tools are common to both kinds of 
work, there are also considerable differences in this respect. 
Several tools which are seldom or never used in the car- 
penter's workshop, e.g., the axe, the draw-knife, and the 
spoon-iron, occupy an important place in slojd-carpentry. 

The most characteristic tool in slojd-carpentry is, however, 
the knife, and by the use of this, his chief instrument, the 
slojder may always be distinguished from the carpenter, 
whose favourite tool is the chisel, and who, as seldom as pos- 
sible, and never willingly, takes the knife in his hand. In 
carpentry, on the other hand, use is made of a number of 
tools more or less necessary, which are quite unknown to the 
slojder, who works for the most part under more primitive 
conditions. Distinct differences can also be pointed out in 
the manner of executing the work (for while division of 



8 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 

labour is practised in carpentry, it is not permitted in slojd) 
and in the manner of using the tools. It will be seen from 
the foregoing that much may pass under the name of instruc- 
tion in slojd which, properly speaking, ought simply to be 
called instruction in carpentry. It is most important that 
this distinction should be maintained, because otherwise edu- 
cational slojd will by degrees be lost in instruction in car- 
pentry as a trade. 
Turning In some schools where slojd is taught we find turning and 
andiuood- wood-carving as well as slojd-carpentry. This, however, is 

carving. •■ i« -n i 

not so common now as it was a tew years ago. reople seem 
to be coming more and more to the conclusion that both occu- 
pations are more suitable for the home than for the school. 
Neither of them is to be commended from the hygienic point 
of view. As regards turning, the difficulty of procuring 
suitable turning-lathes presents in many schools a serious 
obstacle to its general use ; whilst the necessity of perform- 
ing preliminary exercises, apart from the actual objects made 
(a proceeding of very doubtful educational value) places 
turning quite in the shade as compared with slojd-carpentry. 
Wood carving, on the other hand, does not involve that 
energetic bodily labour which is of such great importance in 
connection with educational slojd. Again, wood-carving, 
classed as it is with the so-called "finer" kinds of manual 
work, has a tendency to intensify in the child that contempt 
for rough bodily labour which has already unfortunately 
done so much social harm. The danger of this is however 
greatest when the children are imprudently permitted to 
ornament objects which they have not made. When wood- 
carving is used, not as a separate kind of slojd, but in order 
to complete slojd-carpentry, and when ornamentation is only 
allowed after the children are able in a satisfactory way to 
execute the articles to be embellished by its means, the dis- 
advantages are minimised. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



Method. 



Systematic action, directed towards an end, is termed The 
method. Every form of human activity, in so far as it is '•^^(^'^^9 »/ 

•^ ^ *; . method. 

concerned with the attainment of a definite preconceived end, 
must therefore be regulated according to method, and this 
universally applicable rule holds good in the case of that 
activity which is directed towards instruction and education. 
Hence great importance has always been attached to methods 
of instruction. In fact, in many cases too much attention 
has been paid to the study of special methods. Not that we 
agree with those who, by strange confusion of ideas, regard 
the rules of scientific method as opposed to practice, saying : — 
" We are practical people, and therefore we mean to teach in 
our own practical way, not to follow the theoretical methods 
of others." They thereby show that they do not understand 
how, in the very nature of things, there can be only one 
really practical mode of procedure, and that is the method 
which is in harmony with sound theory, and that any other way 
of going to work must be more or less unpractical. On the 
other hand, it cannot be denied that many teachers misunder- 
stand the true significance of method to such a degree that it 
becomes the Alpha and Omega of the work. They forget 
that, strictly speaking, method is merely a tool — though a very 
necessary one — in the hand of the teacher ; and that, just as 
little as a tool can execute a piece of work of its own accord, 
just so little can method ever be the chief factor in instruc- 
tion. The teacher's power to apply method is the determining 
factor. A good method in the hands of a truly capable 
teacher will always give better results than a bad method. 
The best method is of comparatively little value if the teacher 
is inefficient. 

It will now be clear that slojd, whether regarded as a 
subject of school instruction in the usual sense, or as a purely 
disciplinary subject, must be treated according to rules of 



exercmes. 



10 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

method. The ordinary rules of method can be applied to it ; 
and chief amongst them those which are generally regarded 
as fundamental principles, namely, that instruction shall 
proceed gradually from the more easy to the more difficult, 
from the simple to the complex, and from the knoiun to the 
unknown, it being always understood that the starting point 
is sufficiently easy, simple, and well-known. 

The In drawing up a system of method in slojd teaching it is 

difficult to find any fully logical principle of arrangement 
elsewhere than in the exercises. By exercises in this 
connection is to be understood that manipulation of the 
materials by means of one tool or more in a definite way, 
for a definite object. Now these exercises can be arranged 
in a series, in conformity with the rules given above. This 
could not be done so easily if the tools themselves constituted 
the principle of arrangement, because, e.g., in the case of two 
tools, some exercises performed with the one may be easier, 
and some on the contrary may be more difficult, than the 
exercises which are performed with the other. It is obvious 
that the models cannot constitute the principle of arrange- 
ment, because they are merely the incidental expressions of 
the exercises. When, therefore, it is said that the models in a 
series are graded from the more easy to the more difficult, it 
is meant that the exercises occurring in these models proceed 
in this way. The exercises themselves are partly simple, 
partly complex : the latter consisting of two or more simple 
exercises in combination. The given number of exercises 
entering into the work of special kinds of slojd depends 
more or less upon opinion, for it often happens that what igr 
regarded as one exercise might be analysed into two or more, 
or might be considered as a part of a more complex exercise. 
Hence the eighty-eight exercises in slojd-carpentry enu- 
merated further on, might easily be increased or decreased in 
number, depending entirely upon how far it is considered 
advisable to carry this analysis or synthesis. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 11 

The exercises, their number, their names, and their order ^[ethod 0/ 
are not, however, the only factors which determine method teaching 
in slojd. The way in which they should be taught must be exercises. 
included. There are different modes of procedure. One of 
these is to teach the exercises one after the other, simply as 
isolated or " abstract " exercises, until they have all been per- 
formed. This may be justified from the point of view of 
method in general, but opinions may difier, not to put it too 
strongly, as to its educational soundness. Another mode of 
procedure is to apply each exercise, after it has been practised 
separately or in the abstract, in the construction of a given 
object or model. The exercises themselves are thus given as 
preliminary practice. This, though certainly a step in the 
right direction, does not fully satisfy the demands of educa_ 
tional method, which requires us to proceed from the con- 
crete to the abstract, and not vice versa ; and, moreover, such 
unnecessarily round-about methods cause the loss of valuable 
time which might be better employed. Method in slojd only 
becomes educationally sound when the pupil, by constructing 
objects which can be used in everyday life, acquires dexterity 
in performing the exercises as they occur. To take an illus- 
tration from language teaching, the first mode of procedure 
corresponds to the learning of abstractions in the form of 
grammatical rules ; the second corresponds to the application 
of these rules in sentences after they have been learned ; the 
third corresponds to the method by which the pupil is led up, 
through sentences or combinations of sentences, to the laws 
of language which in them find expression. 

There are, however, other fundamental principles which Arrang»- 
must be adhered to in arranmng a series of models in such a "^^"* '^^!^ 

o o series oj 

way that the exercises involved shall follow each other in rmdeu. 
methodical order. The general nature of the models and the 
manner in which the exercises ought to be introduced in them 
must be considered. In choosing a series of models the best 
plan is undoubtedly to consider local conditions, and endeavour 
to make it exactly representative of articles which can be 



12 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



used in the homes of the pupils. By this means interest in 
the instruction given is better aroused and maintained, not 
only in the pupils, but — and this is quite as important — in the 
parents, and thus the bond between the school and the home 
is strengthened.* Opinion is now probably almost unanimous 
that all articles of luxury should be excluded. (Such articles, 
however, are by no means synonymous with articles intrinsi- 
cally beautiful.) The interest of the pupils is also heightened 
if the first articles presented to them are no larger or more 
difficult than can be executed satisfactorily in a comparatively 
short time. The first models ought, on this account, to include 
few exercises ; and it may be laid down as a general rule that, 
as far as possible, each successive model should include only 
one new exercise, or two at the most. In the arrangement 
of the series, attention must also be paid to alternation in the 
form of the models. The articles which are included in slojd- 
carpentry consist partly of " modelled " articles bounded by 
curved surfaces, and partly of rectangular articles bounded 
principally by plane surfaces. It is very important that any 
arrangement of models in a series should present good alter- 
nation between these two kinds, and, generally speaking, a 
modelled object should follow a rectangular object, and vice 
versa. As a result, each model acquires to some extent the 



* As some confusion of ideas appears to prevail in England between the 
importance of the educational principles on which slojd is based, and the 
models in which these principles are exempHfied, it seems desirable to draw the 
attention of readers to this passage. It indicates sufficiently clearly that, in 
whatever country Swedish slojd may be adopted, the more familiar and the 
more serviceable the articles made are to the inhabitants of that country, the 
more nearly will the method of teaching conform to one of the great principles 
of educational slojd, viz. : that the pupil's interest shall be excited and sustained 
by the making of articles which he himself or the other members of his 
family can use. Many of the models at Naas have, within the last year or two, 
been either modified or changed entirely in order to render them suitable for 
English students, and it is incumbent upon every slojd teacher to make his own 
series of models conform to the ideas and requirements of the people among 
whom he teaches, keeping in view the general principles of method which would 
apply to any series. — Trs. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 13 

charm of novelty, and this still further increases in the pupils 
that interest for their work which is of the very greatest 
importance as regards the educational benefits to be derived 
from slojd. 

The manner in which the details and finished appearance intuUionaL 
of the objects he is to execute are made clear to the pupil, '^^^'^^ ^^ 
must be included within the province of method. It is instrucfum, 
assumed that in this, as in all other instruction, it is of the 
highest importance that the teacher strives to make his 
teaching as intuitional as possible. To this end, in the 
elementary stages, the models should always be executed 
after drawings and models, and in the first instance invariably 
after models which are placed before the pupils for accurate 
imitation. 

As, however, it has been proved to be difficult, in many 
cases indeed almost impossible, to preserve even a well-exe- 
cuted wooden model in its original shape and size, and as, for 
other reasons, it is highly advantageous to connect instruction 
in slojd with instruction in drawing, the model should be 
copied to as great an extent as possible by the aid of geo- 
metrical constructions, sufficiently simple to require in the 
pupil only a slight acquaintance with geometrical drawing. 
In addition to this the most important measurements of the 
model's dimensions should be given, in order that the pupil 
may make use of his rule or metre-measure,* By degrees 
drawings in perspective and projections may be introduced 
as patterns together with the model; and finally, when the 
pupil has reached the highest stage, and has attained suffi- 
cient dexterity in slojd and in the interpretation of a drawing, 
the model may even be taken away, and the work executed 

* As the metrical system of measurement admits of greater exactness than 
our Enghsh system, and as it seems desirable to accustom English children to 
its use, teachers of slojd are strongly advised to adopt it in connection with the 
dimensions of the models. No difficulty need be anticipated. It has been 
found that, in cases where children were permitted to use either their English 
foot-rule or the metre-measure, they invariably preferred the latter. — Trs. 



14 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

after a drawing only. This may be regarded as the final 
aim in elementary instruction in slojd. 

^«^(- It is an essential condition of any method of instruction 

in educational slojd, that the work of the pupils shall be 
independently and accurately executed, for only thus can 
habits of self-reliance, order, and accuracy, so important in 
the formation of character, be developed. In order that self- 
reliance may be developed, the teacher must guard himself 
against giving more help than is absolutely necessary, whether 
this help consists in explaining the best way of doing the work, 
or in doing the work instead of the pupil. As regards the 
latter, the teacher will do well to lay down, as a general rule, 
that he never should touch the pupil's work, for only by this 
means can he avoid the temptation, to which unfortunately 
many teachers have succumbed, to execute the most important 
parts of the work instead of the pupil. At the same time he 
must remember that it is also hurtful to the pupil, and that 
it deprives his instruction of considerable educational value, 
if by unnecessary explanations he hinders the pupil from 
using his own judgment to discover the right way. The 
teacher s art in educational slojd consists essentially in being 
as passive and unobtrusive as possible, while the pupil is 
actively exercising both head and hand. Only in this way 
can the feeling of self-reliance arise and gain strength. 
Let the teacher content himself with pointing out the way, 
and watching that the pupil walks in it. Let him as much 
as possible refrain from leading where this is unnecessary 
and, it may be, hurtful. 

Accuracy. In Order to develop the habit of accuracy in the pupil by 
means of slojd, it is essential that he should make his 
model as nearly as possible an exact likeness of his pattern, 
or — when the model has changed in shape and size — an 
exact copy of what it ought to be, as indicated by the 
geometrical construction, or complete drawing and given 
measurements. We very often hear people say that it is 
quite unnecessary to be so particular with the work, since, 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 15 

e.g., a flower-stick can be quite as serviceable whether it is a 
httle shorter or a little longer. This is perfectly true on the 
assumption that the making of a serviceable flower-stick is 
our chief end in making it. In educational slojd, however, 
the principal object is not the article made, but the mental 
and physical benefits which accrue to the pupil by means of 
the work. In this case it cannot be unimportant that he 
should be exercised in the endeavour to execute something 
as well and as accurately as he is able to do it. For in this 
way his natural disposition to work carelessly is checked, 
while at the same time the degree of accuracy to which he is 
gradually accustomed will be of great advantage farther on 
in the series of models, when he has to perform such opera- 
tions as mortising, grooving, dovetailing, &c., which call for 
no inconsiderable degree of accuracy in their performance. 
Though a pen-holder need not be of any exact size, this is by 
no means the case with the joints in dovetailing; and in 
making the former exact, the latter operation is rendered pos- 
sible, or at all events easier. At the same time, we must not 
demand of the pupil work which is absolutely correct in all its 
details, for this clearly lies beyond his powers. The teacher 
must exercise his " tact " as an educator in determining the 
degree of accuracy which is to be demanded of every separate 
pupil in every separate model, and this being done, the teacher 
must unhesitatingly reject the articles which fail to come up 
to the required standard. But in order that the pupil may 
not be disheartened by repeated rejections, it is advisable not 
to insist on the repetition of the same model more than, at 
the outside, three consecutive times. If the pupil fails to 
succeed the third time, he should be allowed to pass on to 
the next model, and not required to return to the one. he 
failed to make, until he has succeeded in making the other ; 
this he usually does easily enough, owing to the increased 
facility he has gained by practice. If the pupil is permitted 
to pass over a model altogether without bringing it up to 
the required standard, it may encourage him in caprice, and 



16 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 

counteract the development of habits of perseverance, the 
acquisition of which is of such great importance in life. 
Further, the general rule should be strictly observed that 
every article is to be executed as well and as beautifully as 
possible. In educational slojd it is much more important 
that what is made should be the product of good and 
conscientious labour, than that much should be produced. 
Therefore, whatever bears the impress of carelessness and 
haste must be rejected without mercy, lest the pupil fall into 
bad habits, and the educative influences of slojd be weakened. 
ivdividuai The questiou whether individual instruction or class- 
7enm class- teaching should be adopted, comes also under the head of 
teaching, mcthod in slojd-teachiug. As the aim in educational slojd 
is totally different from mere mechanical instruction in the 
art of using tools and making articles, it may be laid down 
as a principle, that only in the degree in which the personal 
influence of the teacher reaches each individual pupil, can 
his influence be truly educative. And as human beings 
difter greatly from one another in natural disposition and 
other respects, instruction, in order to reach the highest 
degree of educative value, must be specially adapted to each 
individual. It is as easy to explain, point out, lead, and 
help too much as too little, and thus to check that mental 
development which can only be secured by systematic well- 
balanced eflbrt. This is, and this will continue to be, the 
disadvantage of class-teaching: — this term being assumed 
to mean, instruction during which all the pupils taking part 
in the lesson have their attention directed at the same time 
to the same part of the subject. This disadvantage can 
never be lost sight of, but in the case of several subjects of 
instruction, especially the purely intellectual subjects, it is 
counterbalanced to some degree, because, by means of class- 
teaching, the practical benefit is gained that a teacher can 
teach a larger number of pupils than he could teach individ- 
ually. Slojd, however, does not belong to these subjects, 
because in it the teacher's powers are limited, to start with, 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 17 

by the number of pupils he can efficiently supervise at work ; 
and it can speedily be demonstrated that he cannot, in class 
teaching, supervise more than by individual instruction, 
provided that in each case equally good results are aiTned at. 
On the contrary, he may find that he cannot supervise so 
many. Another practical objection to class -teaching in cases 
where slojd is applied to educational purposes, is the impos- 
sibility of keeping the class together in the execution of their 
work. It follows either that the more backward pupils 
scamp their work or are allowed to pass over some of the 
models in the series, or else that the superior pupils are 
checked in their progress, and thereby prevented from doing 
as many exercises as they otherwise could have accomplished.* 
The leading question of method in educational slojd 
teaching ought to be less how much, or how many, as how 
well. 

The Pupils. 

The age during which instruction can be received with ad- y^^^ ^„g ^ . 
vantageinany subject whatever is limited downwards as well ti^^puvus. 
as upwards by the work it involves. As regards slojd-car- 
pentry, children ought to have attained the degree of develop- 
ment which corresponds roughly to 10 or 11 years. Other- 
wise they cannot be expected to meet the demands made on 
the spirit of self-reliance during work. At the same time, as 
children of the same age differ greatly in point of development 
our guiding principle should not be the date of birth, but the 
mental and physical powers which the child has at command. 
What one child of nine years can accomplish with ease may be 
beyond the powers of another child of twelve. As regards 
the upward limit of age, it lies considerably beyond school 
years. 

* On certain occasions it is advantageous to demand the attention of all the 
pupils at one time, e.g., when the teacher wishes to explain the properties of a 
tool and the method of using it, or wishes to examine all the pupils together. 
These, however, are special cases, which ought to be quite independent of the 
slojd- work itself. 

B 



18 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

The num- The number of pupils who can be managed individually 
berofthe i^y qj^q teacher at the same time varies considerably, and is 

pupils. . 

influenced partly by the teacher's general efficiency, partly 
by his special efficiency, and partly by the stage at which 
the pupils are. The teacher who is unaccustomed to teach 
slojd will probably be unable at first to manage with ease 
more than from 6 to 8 pupils, especially if they are beginners ; 
later on the number may be increased to 12, and by degrees, 
under favourable conditions, to 15, 18, or at most 20.* No 
teacher, however, ought to let his desire to increase the 
number of his pupils induce him to take more at one time 
than he can manage in a thoroughly satisfactory way. 

The Time given to Instruction. 

The length j^ slojd Icssou oupfht uot to last Icss than an hour and a half, 

and the dcs- i 

tributionof or morc than two hours and a half. It ought, if possible, to 
the lessons, intervene between hours devoted to intellectual instruction, 
because it offers a wholesome variety for mind and body. 
Slojd by artificial light should be avoided as much as possible. 
It is desirable that every pupil should receive three lessons 
a week. They should be given every other day, and if the 
pupils have gymnastics on the intervening days, it will secure, 
to some extent at least, the necessary physical exercise on a 
rational basis. 



2'he use of 

the school- 



The Slojd-room. 

The days are past, in Sweden at least, when it was regarded 
room/or as a degradation of the rooms devoted to intellectual instruc- 
*'^^'^- tion to use them for slojd teaching. Since "practical" slojd 

has been forced to make way for educational slojd, and the 
importance of the latter has been more and more recognised, 
no thoughtful teacher can think that his class-room loses 
dignity because manual labour is carried on in it. In many 
schools where space is limited, slojd must, at first at least, be 

* This has been proved by observations made in the elementary schools in 
Stockholm. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



19 



given a share of the school-room. Where this room is large 
enough, and where the slojd-teacher's spirit of order is suffi- 
ciently strong to make him keep his department always tidy, 
this combination may be made without special inconvenience. 
It is advisable to place the slojd-benches and the tool-cup- 
board at one end of the room. The removal of desks to 
make temporary room for benches should only be permitted 
when such an arrangement is unavoidable. 

The use of the school-room for the double purpose of in- 
tellectual work and slojd is not, however, to be recommended 
when circumstances permit of separate rooms being fitted up. 
Different arrangements are required for the two branches of 
instruction. A description of the general arrangement re- 
quired in a room devoted to the purposes of educational 
slojd carpentry follows. This description is based on ex- 
perience gained in the teaching of slojd up to the present 
time. It must, however, be borne in mind in this connection, 
that the conditions in an elementary school in the country 
and in a school in a large town or in closely-populated manu- 
facturing districts, vary according to circumstances. 

As regards the former, we must, as a general rule, be less The sim- 
exacting in our demands ; in the latter, on the contrary, ^'°^^"' "^ 
arrangements may be made which shall meet fully the educa- country 
tional requirements of a good slojd-room. In an ordinary ^'^^^°^^- 
elementary school in the country, where there may not be 
more than from eight to twelve pupils requiring instruction 
at the same time, a slojd-room measuring 16 ft. in length, 
13 ft. in breadth, and 10 ft. in height, will be large enough. 
It should be situated on the ground-floor. The walls should 
be wainscotted, and the room should contain three or four 
double, or six or eight single, benches ; cupboards for tools, 
models, and finished articles ; a grindstone, a chopping-block, 
and, if turnery is included in the course, also a turning-lathe. 
If the room is kept locked between lessons, the tools may be 
disposed round the walls instead of being kept in a cupboard. 
The wood required should be stored in some place adjoining. 



20 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

The siojd- In a large school, where opportunity is given for making 
Zrg^ the arrangements for slojd teaching as complete as possible, 
schools. the following directions may be found useful : — 

Situation. — The slojd-room (not ''work-shop") should 
open from a lobby either on the ground-floor or on the top 
storey. It should never be situated in the basement. If it 
is on the ground floor, care should be taken that it is as far 
as possible from the other school-rooms, that the noise may 
not disturb the pupils in the latter. If a slojd-room is situ- 
ated above a school-room, it should be furnished with a double 
floor, with an intervening layer of sawdust to deaden the 
noise. 

Area. — To accommodate 20 pupils at one time, the room 
should be about 50 ft. long and 23 ft. broad. This will give 
adequate space for 20 separate benches (placed in 5 rows), a 
turning lathe, a saw-bench, grindstones, chopping-blocks, 
cupboards for tools, models, and finished articles, and a rack 
for wood. Wood ought not to be suspended from the roof if 
this can be avoided, partly because it is unsightly, and partly 
because it gives unnecessary trouble. The space between the 
benches ought to be about 2 J ft. 

Height. — The slojd-room ought to be from 12 ft. to 15 ft. 
high. 

Windows. — -The slojd-room should be well-lighted by large 
and properly placed windows. The area of window surface 
is generally reckoned as 25 to 80 per cent, of the floor area. If 
the slojd-room is on the ground floor, windows should, if pos- 
sible, be placed in three of its walls. If it is on the top 
storey it is better to let the light enter by sky-lights than 
dormer windows. 

The Walls. — To prevent injury to the walls they should be 
lined with wood, or at all events with a tolerably high wains- 
cotting. The doors and the window-frames should be painted, 
but the walls need only be varnished. 

Warming. — Where there is no central system of heating, 



INTEODUCTORY REMARKS, 21 

the best way to heat the slojd-room in winter is by two large 
stoves. The temperature ought not to be higher than from 
54° to 57° F. The glue should be melted on a small stove 
heated by gas or oil. 

Artificial light — As work is done in the slojd room on 
winter afternoons, arrangements must be made for artificial 
light. This light, whether furnished by gas or by electricity, 
must always come from above, in order that no shadows may 
be cast on the work. 

The Position of the Body during* Work. 

If slojd is to contribute towards physical development — 
a point on which most people are now tolerably unanimous — 
methodical and effectual arrangements must be made to this 
end. 

It can easily be demonstrated that of all kinds of sloid, '^^^^'^""'^ 

T-T ,. ... ., .. , gymnastics 

slojd-carpentry m conjunction with gymnastics is the m^i' should go 
adapted for physical training, but it is equally clear that this ^^*"^^ *" 
can only be the case, provided that the positions assumed and 
the motions prescribed are well-selected. As regards this we 
have to find the happy medium. On the one hand it cannot 
be denied that many of the so-called " instinctive " positions 
assumed by artisans and " slojders " have reference more to 
what is advantageous for the work than for the worker. On 
the other hand it must be granted that though slojd ought to 
be considered as " applied gymnastics,'' this principle should 
not be carried out so pedantically that the idea of work is 
lost sight of. Slojd is- essentially work, and not merely -^^^^'^^ ''« 
gymnastic exercises with tools as apparatus ; and all that we TilrdT 
are justified in aiming at is, that when we have a choice ^^""\"*'''' 
between positions and movements favourable to physical 
development and those which are unfavourable, we must 
adopt the former. We may rest assured that, in the long 
run, not only the worker but the work will gain thereby. 
Harmonious or all-round physical development is mate- 



22 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



Uniform 
ixercise of 
the muscles 
of both 
sides. 



Positions 

and 

movements 

during 

work. 



rially advanced when the muscles of both sides are equally 
exercised during work. This is a fundamental rule in gym- 
nastics. It is equally binding in slojd whenever it is capable 
of application. The objection we sometimes hear that the 
left hand has not the same strength and steadiness as the 
right, depends on a confusion between cause and effect, 
because this inferiority in most cases is caused by the fact 
that at an early age the left hand in the matter of exercise 
is neglected for the right. It is, moreover, easy to enumerate 
a great number of operations in which both hands execute 
almost the same work. As examples may be given : sowing 
seed, kneading dough, weaving, hewing wood, driving, rowing, 
playing on the piano, &c. In slojd-carp entry the saw, the 
plane, the centre-bit, and the file may, in particular, be 
directed alternately by the right and by the left hand, and 
the change should be made by all the pupils together, at the 
command of the teacher, about every half hour. On the other 
hand, the use of the axe or the knife by the left hand is not 
to be recommended until great experience in the use of the 
left has been gained, on account of the greater danger of 
injury should the tool accidentally slip aside. 

The following general rules may be given for the positions 
and movements in educational slojd-carpentry. 

Position of the chest. — The chest encloses the important 
vital organs, the heart and the lungs, the former of which 
regulates the circulation of the blood, and the latter the 
process of respiration. That these may freely and without 
hindrance perform their functions, the space in which they 
move must not be diminished. It must rather be enlarged. 
We must therefore endeavour to prevent any narrowing of 
the chest, and attention should always be directed to keeping 
the shoulders well back during work, in order that the chest 
may be expanded. Inspiration and expiration should take 
place quietly, without any effort whatever. 

The head should be held as erect as possible, to avoid un- 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 23 

necessary loss of muscular power, to permit greater freedom 
of circulation, and to preserve the eyesight from injury during 
work. When the head is bent forwards the veins in some 
situations are compressed, in others extended ; in both cases 
their calibre is diminished. In connection with the effect the 
position of the head may have upon the circulation, the 
importance of loose clothing should be noticed. Tightly 
fitting collars and neckties should be above all avoided. To 
preserve the sight, work should not be held nearer the eye 
than about 12 in. : for this reason it is very advantageous in 
educational slojd to use exclusively benches whose construc- 
tion permits of their being raised to different heights. Thus 
the work may always be held at the proper distance from the 
eye, while the position of the head is, from the hygienic point 
of view, most advantageous. 

The feet should be so placed as to afford the best and firmest 
support during work. In the execution of every exercise a 
certain mechanical resistance has to be overcome. For this 
purpose muscular strength, and in certain circumstances the 
weight of the body, must be called into play. This resistance 
must be regarded as force opposing the worker in a certain 
direction, and he must allow his body to assume the state of 
equilibrium most favourable in relation to the direction of the 
force. This is done as regards the feet, when the line of most 
resistance is in front of the worker, by placing the one foot 
in front of the other in such a position that a line drawn from 
the foremost foot in the direction of its length, would meet 
the heel of the other at right angles ; and when the resistance 
is from the side, by placing the feet apart sideways. A bad 
habit of frequent occurrence, especially in planing, is to turn 
the toes in. This ought to be avoided as much as possible, 
because it interferes with the natural action of the knee joint. 

The position and movements of the body. — The worker 
should assume a position, in relation to his work, which 
enables the muscles of his arms to have free play in the most 
favourable direction for its execution, i.e., in a direction 



24 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



Order an 
indispens- 
able 
condition. 



The pupils' 
places for 



Numbers 
on the 
benches 
and tools. 



Fixed 
places for 
tools. 



opposed to the line of resistance, or friction between the tool 
and the piece of wood. In certain exercises, such as planing 
and boring, this friction is, to some extent, increased by the 
necessary bending of the body over the tool, whereby the 
weight of the body helps to press it against the wood. In 
using some tools, e.g., the saw, this weight may also act as a 
kind of regulator, by gently setting the body in motion back- 
wards and forwards. The reader is referred to Plates I.- VIIL 
for illustrations of some of the most important positions.* 

Some Rules for the Slojd Teacher. 

In all teaching, and not least in slojd teaching, the main- 
tenance of order must be laid down as an indispensable 
condition. The following simple directions may serve for 
guidance to the teacher. 

Every pupil should have a fixed place at a bench. When 
circumstances permit, it is advisable to have at disposal as 
many benches (or when benches intended for two are used, 
half as many benches) as there are pupils taking part simul- 
taneously in a lesson. 

The benches and tools should be furnished with numbers, 
so that they can easily be distinguished from one another. 
The following tools should, if possible, belong to each bench, 
and be marked with its number : knife, trying-plane, smooth- 
ing-plane, jack-plane, square, marking-gauge, compasses, rule 
or metre measure, and scraper, t Other tools may serve the 
whole class in common. 

All tools should have fixed places. Those belonging to the 
bench may be allowed to lie upon it until the close of the 
lesson, but all tools in common use should be laid by or hung 
up immediately after use, in order that they may be easily 
found. 

The teacher must take care that all the edge tools in use are 

* These plates are specially intended to illustrate the position of body which 
the worker should assume when beginning the particular exercise indicated, 
t These constitute the bench-set. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS, 25 

well sharpened, and that any tool which gets out of order, or The 
is broken, is repaired as soon as possible. If practicable, the ^J^^^^^^^^ 
pupils should do their own repairs. repairing 

At the begfinninP' of the lesson the pupils should, in an " ' 

The work. 

orderly way, get out their tools and work. The latter, if 
begun in a previous lesson, should be kept in boxes specially 
provided for the purpose, and should be marked with the 
pupils' names. 

In order to teach and superintend in the full meaning of teacher 
these terms, the teacher must not stand still in one place, during 
He must go from one pupil to another with advice and criti- '^°^^'' 
cism. The pupils, on the contrary, must, as far as possible, 
remain at their benches. If they desire any advice from the 
teacher, they must not attract his attention by calling out, 
but by some signal, e.g., holding up one hand, standing in 
front of the bench and looking towards him, etc. All un- 
necessary talking must be carefully avoided. 

The pupil himself, guided by the teacher, must select selection 
suitable wood. "Waste must be avoided as far as possible. of wood. 

The pupil must not be allowed to polish with sand-paper sand- 
until the teacher has examined the work and found that ^^^^*'* 
sufficient use has been made of cutting tools. The sand-paper 
is to be kept by the teacher and given out by him as required. 
About 6 sq. in. is calculated for each model. The calculation 
is founded on the supposition that though the models become 
larger as the course proceeds, the greater facility of the pupil 
diminishes in about the same degree his need of sand-paper. 

At the end of the lesson all the tools should be put back Putting 
in their places, care being taken that all the saws are loosened. ^^^ ^^^'J^ 

TOOT)!/ ZTh 

The tools should be counted by the " captain," or monitor, order. 
appointed for the class, after which the teacher sees that 
everything is in its right place. The wood and the pieces of 
work are put away tidily. The benches are brushed and 
made clean with a brush which should hang by the side of 
each bench, and the floor is swept. The shavings, however, 
need not be carried away oftener than once or twice a week. 



26 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



Finished 
work. 



Taking the 
work home. 



Daybook. 



When the finished pieces of work have been " passed " by 
the teacher, a label should be stuck on, and on this label 
should be stated the number of the model and its name, the 
name and age of the pupil, and the number of hours spent in 
making it. If it is considered desirable to give every piece 
of work a value, this also may be mentioned on the label. 

Although from the educational point of view it is advisable 
that the pupils should at once take home their work, it is 
generally for other reasons more expedient that it should 
remain in the school in the care of the teacher until it can 
be exhibited publicly at an examination or terminal break - 
ing-up. After this has taken place, the articles are to be re- 
garded as the property of the makers. The sale of work 
for the benefit of the school should never be thought of. 

A very good plan is to allow the pupils to take home their 
work as soon as it is finished, in order to show it to their 
parents, on the understanding that, after they have seen it, 
it is brought back to the school, to be kept there as long as 
necessary. 

The teacher should enter in a day-book, arranged for the 
purpose, careful notes regarding the pupils taking part in the 
slojd lessons, their presence and absence from lessons, the 
articles they make, etc., etc. 



27 



CHAPTER II. 
Wood, or Timber. 

The material generally used in slojd-teaching, and most 
suitable for the purpose, is wood or tmxber. 

Intelligent knowledge of the material used is as essential 
to the teacher as acquaintance with the tools required. He 
ought, e.g., to be familiar with the qualities which render 
different kinds of wood more or less appropriate for different 
purposes. Accordingly the description of the tools given 
in Chapter III. is here preceded by a brief account of the 
growth of trees ; of the most important properties of wood, 
and the principal changes which it undergoes; and by a 
comparison of the technical qualities of the various kinds of 
wood in common use. 

A. The Structure and Composition of Wood. 

Wood or timber forms the greater part of the stems and 
branches of trees and shrubs. 

To examine the inner structure of a tree-stem, a section ^ tree-stem 
may be made at right angles to the direction of its length, *" section, 
i.e., a transverse or cross section; or from the pith to the 
bark in the line of one of the radii and parallel to the direc- 
tion of the length, i.e., a radial section; or a third section 
may be made at right angles to both the preceding as a 
tangent to the circumference, i.e., a tangential section. 



28: 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



On examining 
the cross-section 
of a stem we find 
an outer ring, the 
6ar^, consisting of 
a corky layer, the 
outer bark, and 
the inner bark or 
hast\ next comes 
the wood, consti- 
tuting the chief 
portion of the 
stem, and in the 




Fig. 1. Three sections of a tree-stem, at right 
angles to one another. 



r.n-n-i-T'ol T-wo ->/>-<- id ^ T. cross section, A', radial section, r^'. tangential section. 

cen^rai pari) is a _jf. medulla - ----- - 



canal fillpd -wrifli annual layers, mm. Medullary rays, a&. thickness of medullary 



or pith, B. Bark, C. Cambium, aa. Concentric 
's, mm. Medullary rays, ab. thickn< 
rays, cd. height of medullary rays, II. vessels. 

soft cellular tissue called the pith or "medulla. Between the 
wood and the bast lies a narrow, light-coloured ring, the 
Camhiuon. This consists of a layer of embryonic cells, from 
which are developed on the one side wood, and on the other 
bast, and it is here that the growth of the tree takes place. 

The Cambium forms the soft, moist, spongy mass which 
may be seen under the bark in spring when the sap begins 
to rise. It consists of microscopic cells, some of which are 
long, prismatic, and pointed at the ends, while others are 
shorter and have ends which terminate abruptly. The inner 
bark and wood are developed chiefly from the long cells, the 
medullary rays from the short ones. 



Wood Cells. 

The forma- The youug cclls from which wood is developed have at 
tionofwood. ^^^^^ very thin walls. They are filled with sap, the fluid 
which nourishes the growing tree, and which circulates with 
ease from one thin walled cell to another, and thus permeates 
the whole of the tissue. Gradually the walls of the cells 
become thicker ; the cell contents solidify ; the sap flows less 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 29 

and less freely ; the whole tissue assumes the characteristics 
of wood, and ceases to take part in the circulation and assimi- 
lation of the sap. 

The cellular tissue consists chiefly of cellulose, the chemical 
constituents of which are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 

Wood Fibres. 

The cells from which wood is developed are principally 
the long-pointed cells. They lie close together and overlap 
one another at the ends, thus forming minute tubes or fibres. 
The zone of wood in any stem consists of these fibres massed 
together, and extending in the direction of the length of the 
stem. The connection between separate fibres is often very 
slight, as is shown by the ease with which they may be 
separated. 

In trees of regular growth the fibres are straight and 
parallel. Wood of this kind is called "straight fibred." It 
is easily split. This is not the case with wood in which 
the fibres are crooked, or twisted about one another, as in 
gnarled or mis-shapen trees. The fibres in the root, the lower 
part of the stem, knotty branches and rough excrescences 
are always crooked, and sometimes they are twisted and 
involved in the most remarkable way. This gives rise to the 
peculiar speckled and veined appearance which is so highly 
prized in some kinds of wood. 

The bast . also consists of fibres, but they are longer and 
usually tougher than wood-fibres. 

Concentric Annual Layers. 

A new layer of bast and a new layer of wood are formed 
annually. This new formation goes on rapidly in spring and 
early summer, when vital activity in the tree is at its height. 
The cells are then large, and the wood formed from them, i.e., 
spring wood, is soft and loose in texture and light in colour. 
After the tree has budded the formation of wood goes on for 



30 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



Distinctness 
of the con- 
centric 
annual 
layers. 



Determina- 
tion of the 
age of a 
tree. 



a time, but less actively. The cells diminish in size and in 
diameter, and are more closely packed together. The wood 
formed at this period — autumn wood — is generally darker in 
colour and closer in texture than spring wood. There are 
fewer vessels (see p. 31 ) in autumn wood ; in spring wood, on 
the contrary, they are numerous and quite visible as pores. 
In consequence of the characteristics of autumn wood, the 
boundary line between two periods of vegetation is clearly 
defined, and it is easy to distinguish the concentric annual 
layers which mark each yearly increase in growth. 

These layers are most sharply defined in needle-leaved trees 
and in some broad-leaved trees, e.g., the oak, the ash, and the 
elm.* They are less conspicuous in the birch, the aspen, the 
alder, etc., and in some cases it is even difficult to distinguish 
them at all. As a new layer of wood is formed every year, 
the age of a tree may be determined by the number of layers. 

In the tropics, where vegetation goes on during almost the 
entire year without any well-marked period of rest, the con- 
centric annual layers disappear entirely. 

The breadth of the concentric layers varies in difierent 
trees. In some cases they are more than 1 inch broad, in 
others scarcely -^ inch. Their breadth may vary even in 
the same stem, depending on the more or less favourable 
weather of successive seasons. The layers 
on the side exposed to the south are often 
broader than those on the north. In old 
needle-leaved trees we usually find very nar- 
row layers nearest the pith; beyond these 
the layers widen for the greater portion of 
the stem, and then contract once more until 
the outermost ones are often so narrow that 
they can with difficulty be distinguished by 
the naked eye. See Fig. 2. 




Fig. 2, — Showing 
manner of growth 
in needle - leaved 

trees. 



* The terms needle-leaved trees and broad-leaved trets used throughout this 
book may be taken as practically synonymous with Conifers and Dicotyledonous 
trees. — Trs. 



WOOD, OR TIMBER, 



31 



Narrow annual layers betoken good wood in needle -leaved close and 
trees ; but the opposite holds good in the case of broad-leaved ^'^^^ ^^ ^'" 
trees with large pores, e.g., the oak, the ash, and the elm. 
Here broad annual layers are characteristic of a good quality 
of wood, because the pores which render the wood open in 
the grain occur chiefly in that portion of the layer which is 
formed in early spring, and are less numerous in the closer 
tissue of the autumn wood. See Fig. 3. 

Fig. 3. 





Fir. 

Narrow laj^ers, Broad layers, 

liard resinous loose fibred 

timber. timber. 



Oak. 

Narrow layers, Broad layers, 
loose fibred hard timber, 
porous timber. 



Vessels or Air-tubes. 

When a cross-section of a stem is carefully examined a 
number of minute holes or pores are seen. These are the 
mouths of vessels or air-tubes, which penetrate the whole 
substance of the wood, parallel with the fibres. Their func- 
tion is to enable the air to circulate in the stem, and they The porous- 
are found even in wood of the closest grain, rendering it'^^*^" ^^^ 
porous. Vessels are most numerous in the wood formed 
early in spring, and very few are found in autumn wood, a 
circumstance which helps to make the annual layers more 
distinct. According to the size of these vessels wood is said 
to be fine or coarse-grained. 

Each kind of tree has something peculiar to itself in the 
manner of distribution, the number, and the size of its 
vessels. They are most marked in the oak, the ash, and the 
elm, giving to the wood of these trees, when seen in vertical 



32 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

section, its striped or streaked appearance. In a number of 
trees on the other hand, e.g., the birch, the vessels are hardly 
visible, and they are distributed pretty equally over the con- 
centric annual layers, making it difficult to distinguish 
consecutive layers. 

Needle-leaved trees have no air vessels, but have channels 
Resin. filled with rcsiu, i.e., resin-canals. These occur chiefly in 
the autumn wood, to which they give a darker colour. 

Heart-wood and Sap-wood, 

In many kinds of trees, when the stem is sawn across, a 
considerable difierence may be observed between the appear- 
ance of the inner and older, and the outer and younger 
concentric annual layers. The inner layers are usually 
firmer and closer in texture and darker in colour than the 
outer, which are less compact, lighter in colour, and full of 
sap. 

The Heart- The firmer, darker wood is called heart-wood or duramen ; 
wood, the j.]^g looser, lisfhter wood, sap-iuood or alburnum. As a rule 

valuable ~ ^ 

part of the the latter forms a comparatively narrow ring round the 
former, which constitutes the greater portion of the stem, 
and which, when sound, is the valuable portion on account 
of its firmer texture and greater durability. 

The proportion which the heart-wood bears to the sap- 
wood varies in different kinds of trees. For example, in the 
case of broad-leaved trees, the proportion is largest in the 
oak, the ash, and the elm ; least in the birch, the maple, the 
alder, the hornbeam, etc. In needle-leaved trees, it is greatest 
in the larch and the fir ; least in the pine. The resin in these 
trees is found chiefly in the heart- wood. It greatly increases 
its closeness and durability, and darkens its colour. 

The most striking example of the difference in appearance 
between heart-wood and sap-wood is presented by ebony, in 
which the former is black and the latter white. 



stem. 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 33 



The Pith and the Medullary Rays. 

. The pith forms a column in the central part of the stem, 
and the Tnedullary rays radiate from the pith towards the 
bark. 

The pith is looser in texture, and is composed of shorter 
cells than the wood. The shape and size of the column vary 
considerably in different trees. In some, e.g., the yew, it is 
very thin ; in others, e.g., the elder, it occupies a considerable 
space. 

The medullary rays or " transverse septa " are composed of 
flat cellular tissue, which forms thin vertical plates radiating 
towards the bark. During the first year of the growth of 
the tree, these rays originate in the pith, divide the patches 
of wood and bast, and reach as far as the bark. In sub- 
sequent years they are formed in connection with the new 
wood, not with the pith, and they extend into the bark. 
The medullary rays are the medium by which the pith and 
the wood are brought into communication with the bark. 
They also divide the wood into wedge-shaped bundles. They 
are seldom so straight and regularly disposed as is represented 
in the diagram (Fig. 1), but are generally more or less curved, 
and they often branch out obliquely. They vary considerably Different 
both in number and appearance in different trees, and thus, ^"'*^^ °^ 
like the vessels, they serve as a guide to the recognition of hy the 
different kinds of wood. For example, oah is easily known ^^^''^c^^'" 
by the smoothness and glossiness of its broad medullary rays medullary 
when these are seen in radial section. This gives to oak ^"^*- 
timber the beautiful figured appearance called " silver grain." 
The beech has also long, broad medullary rays. The maple 
is distinguished by the fineness and number of its medullary 
rays. 

In the greater number of loose-fibred, broad-leaved trees, 
the rays are very narrow, and scarcely distinguishable by the 



34 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

naked eye. This is also the case with needle-leaved trees, 
the rays of which are extremely numerous. 
The cleavage The medullary rays affect to a considerable extent the ease 
or difficulty with which wood may be split. As a general 
rule, timber is easily split if it has broad rays like the oak 
and the beech, or if the rays, though numerous, are straight 
and narrow like those of the fir and the pine. Other circum- 
stances, however, may determine the greater or less resistance 
which any given timber presents to cleavage. 

The Sap. 

Next to the wood the sap is the most important element in 
timber. Its chief constituent is water, which holds in solution 
various organic and inorganic substances, but its composition 
undergoes changes in the course of circulation through the 
different parts of the tree. 

The sap materials are absorbed by the roots, and as crude, 
or ascending sap, are carried by the still active cells of the 
sap-wood to the leaves. Here, through the influence of light 
and air, the crude sap is changed and made fit for the nourish- 
ment and growth of the tree, and is called elaborated sap. 
From the leaves it descends in the bast tubes to the cambium, 
where the new wood and bast are formed. 
The organic Amougst thc orgauic substauccs which the sap holds in 
on/iT^^"*^ solution may be named, starch, sugar, colouring matter, 
tannic acid, and albuminoids. The latter render it very liable 
to fermentation, and when this takes place the wood decays. 
This is the reason why timber, felled when the sap is circu- 
lating, and allowed to lie unbarked, readily becomes " sour." 
It also explains why sap-wood decays more quickly than 
heart-wood. 

When wood is burnt the inorganic constituents remain in 
the ashes. 

Sap also contains substances which are not required for 
the growth of the tree, but which occupy space and channels 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 35 

in the wood. Amongst these substances are the volatile oils, 
which are found chiefly in needle-leaved trees, and of which 
turpentine is the most important. The resin or gum found Turpentine, 
in needle-leaved trees is also formed from these oils. Tannic ^J^ 'tannic 
acid is found in a great many trees, especially in the bark. «''^'^- 
It is known by its acrid taste, and it abounds chiefly in the 
oak, the fir, and the alder. When fresh timber in which 
there is a great deal of tannic acid is split or sawn, the acid 
makes the polished edge of the tool become blue-black in 
colour. 

The destructive eflect of the albuminoids of the sap is 
counteracted by the turpentine, resin, and tannic acid. 

Water Capacity. 

The sap, as stated above, consists chiefly of water ; and, as 
it circulates in the sap-wood, it follows that the latter con- 
tains more water than the heart-wood, and more in spring 
than in the height of summer. As a general rule the water 
contained in unseasoned wood is about 40 to 50 per cent, of 
the weight of the wood. In unseasoned ash and beech it is 
20 to 30 per cent. ; in loose-grained oak, hornbeam, maple, 
elm, Scotch fir, and spruce fir, 30 to 40 per cent. ; in the looser 
fibred trees in which sap abounds, e.g., the alder, the lime, 
the willow, and the aspen, 40 to 50 per cent. 

The presence of water has generally a hurtful eflfect upon 
timber, as is shown in what follows. 



B. The Changes ^vhieh. Wood 
undergoes. 

The changes to which wood is subject are partly mechanical 
in their nature, consisting of alterations in the water capacity, 
and consequent alterations in shape ; partly chemical, caused 
chiefly by the decomposition of the sap, which finally leads 
to the decay of the wood. 



36 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



Changes in 
the volume 
of timber. 



Shrinkage 
in different 
directions. 



L Changes in the Water Capacity, and the changes in 
form which are thereby produced. 

Newly felled timber contains, as has been said, a large pro- 
portion of water — sometimes as much as 50 per cent, of its own 
weight. After lying for some time in a dry and airy place, 
it loses about half its amount of water by evaporation. 
Sawn or split wood, dried for a year or two under cover, 
still retains 10 to 15 per cent, of water, and only by con- 
tinuous application of heat, or drying in an oven, can the 
water in timber be completely expelled. 

During the process of drying, timber decreases in volume 
or shrinks. If exposed again to moisture it increases in volume 
or sivells. 

If any given piece of timber were uniform in texture 
throughout, and if no obstacles in any direction were pre- 
sented to its expansion, the only result of shrinking or swell- 
ing would be alteration in volume ; there would be no change 
in form. This, however, is seldom the case. Generally 
speaking, the texture of the wood varies in different parts 
of the same piece. Again, it is often used under conditions 
which do not permit it to shrink or swell freely in all direc- 
tions ; consequently, it shrinks or swells more in one place 
than in another. 

When one part of a piece of timber shrinks more rapidly 
than an adjacent part, the wood cracks. If, on the other 
hand, one part swells more than another, or if the adjacent 
part meets with some obstacle to its expansion, the timber 
changes in shape — it becomes warped. 

The shrinkage of timber stands in close connection with the 
amount of water contained. The more water it gives off 
while drying, the more it shrinks. Similarly the warmer and 
drier the air in which it is placed, the greater the shrinkage. 

Some kinds of wood shrink more than others, and the 
same kind of wood shrinks differently in different directions. 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 37 

All wood ishrinks least in the direction of the fibres' length, 
and generally so very little that the difference need not be 
taken into consideration. But the difference caused by 
shrinking is very great across the fibres, and in tangential 
section it is two or three times greater than in radial section, 
or in the plane of the medullary rays. The sap-wood, which 
contains more water than the heart-wood, always shrinks 
more than the latter. 

The following table, taken from " Karmarsch's Technology," 
shows the results of experiments made on a number of trees, 
to ascertain to what extent their timber shrinks. It must be 
observed that (1) the experiments were made with thin pieces 
of wood ; (2) that the figures are understood to represent the 
difierence between wood which is either quite green or satu- 
rated with water, and that which has been thoroughly well 
seasoned ; and that, therefore, (3) the shrinking of partially 
seasoned wood is considerably less than is stated in the table. 
(The same applies of course to the swelling of such wood, 
when it is again exposed to moisture.) 

The last column gives the average degree of shrinkage 
across the fibres. 



38 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



Shrinkag'e of Timber. 



General 
results 
afforded by 
the above 
table. 



Name of tree. 



The common alder 

The elm 

The apple 

The common ash (young 
The common birch 
The common beech 
The hornbeam 

Ebony 

The oak (young) .. 
The oak (old) ... 
The Scotch fir ... 
The spruce fir . . . 

The lime 

The common larch 

The maple 

Mahogany 
Lignum vitse 
The pear 

The rowan 

The common walnut 



Degree of Shrinkage. 



In length. 
Per cent. 



Across the fibres in 
the direction of — 



The 
medullary 

rays. 

Per cent. 



The 
annual 
layers. 

Per cent. 



Average 

across the 

fibres. 

Per cent. 



0.369 


2.91 


5.07 


0.124 


2.94 


6.22 


0.109 


3.00 


7.39 


0.821 


4.05 


6.56 


0.222 


3.86 


9.30 


0.200 


5.03 


8.06 


0.400 


6.66 


10.90 


0.010 


2.13 


4.07 


0.400 


3.90 


7.55 


0.130 


3.13 


7.78 


0.120 


3-04 


5.72 


0.076 


2.41 


6.18 


0.208 


7.79 


11.50 


0.075 


2.17 


6.32 


0.072 


3.35 


6-59 


0.110 


1.09 


1.79 


0.625 


5.18 


7.50 


0.228 


3.94 


12.70 


0.190 


2.11 


8-88 


0.223 


3.53 


6-25 



3.99 

4.58 

5.19 

5.30 

6.58 

6.54 

8.78 

3.10 

5.72 

5.45 

4.38 

4.29 

9.64 

4.24 

4.97 

1.44 

6.34 

8.32 

5-49 

4-89 



As is seen from the above table, the degree of shrinkage in 
the direction of the length of the wood is so slight that it 
may be left entirely out of consideration. In the direction 
of the breadth, however, it varies from 2 per cent, to 9 per 
cent. In radial section, the general average is 5 per cent. ; for 
fir and pine 3 per cent. ; for birch 4 per cent. In tangential 
section, where shrinkage is greatest, it varies from 2 per cent, 
to 13 per cent., the general average for wood in common use 
being 7 per cent. ; for fir and pine 6 per cent. ; for birch 9 
per cent. 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 



39 




When a tree stem is 
sawn up into planks by- 
parallel longitudinal cuts, 
the planks shrink as is 
shown in Ym. 4. The 
broadest portion shown, 
which includes the pith, 
shrinks least in breadth, 
Fig. 4. Shrinkage in planks. most in thickness ; least 

nearest the pith, most near the sides. The outermost plank, 
however, shrinks most in breadth — in the direction of the 
annual layers — and least in thickness. The planks lying 
between shrink differently on different sides, and become 
concave to the pith, and convex on the other side. 

Of trees in most general use, beech, lime, hornbeam, and 
pear shrink most ; birch, apple, white-beam, walnut, ash, and 
oak shrink considerably ; alder, maple, Scotch fir, elm, spruce 
fir, and larch shrink in a medium degree. Mahogany shrinks 
least of all timbers. 

Cracks occur in timber, because, as indicated above, it is 
seldom uniform in texture, and it is therefore liable to shrink 
in different degrees during seasoning. The parts nearest the 
sap-wood shrink more rapidly than the heart-wood, and 
cracks, which run almost invariably in the direction of the 
medullary rays, are the result. The more rapidly wood dries 
the more it cracks, consequently timber should always he 
dried very slowly to prevent the formation of cracks. If it is 
tolerably uniform in texture, it may, with proper treatment, 
be kept entirely free from cracks. 

The swelling, or expansion of timber, takes place when it 
is exposed to damp air or water, and is in direct relation to 
its shrinkage. When a piece of dried wood is immersed in 
water, it swells until it occupies the same volume as it occu- 
pied in its fresh condition, after which no further expansion 
takes place. Its amount of water, however, and consequently 



40 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

its weight, are greater than in its fresh condition, because 
the vessels originally filled with air are now filled with 
water. 

The warping of timber depends on differences in the nature 
of its texture, and on other circumstances which cause changes 
in form both when it shrinks and when it swells. For ex- 
ample, a plank will become twisted or curved if one side 
only is exposed to the sun without being turned. Thin, flat 
pieces of wood become convex or concave, according as one 
or other side is exposed to damp or to drying influences. 

II. Means of preventing" Cracks and Warping". 

The means taken to keep timber as far as possible from 
cracking or warping during the process of seasoning, are very 
various. They are partly connected with the treatment of 
the wood when it is cut up into timber, and partly with its 
treatment for any special purpose. 

1. Seasoning. 

whemoood Tvecs shoubld be felled when the sap is down or at rest. 
The best time is from the the middle of December to the end 



cut down. 



of February. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the im- 
portance of felling timber at the right time, for if felled at 
the wrong season, it will contain too much sap, which will 
make it very dijB&cult to dry, render it much more liable to 
swell or shrink, and increase the risk of its becoming worm- 
eaten. In the case of needle-leaved trees excess of sap gives 
a bluish tinge to the surface of the timber. 
Wood The more slowly timber is dried the less it cracks, and 

^^i^^ timber felled at the proper season and allowed to dry slowly 

slowly. cracks very little. Barked timber, which dries more quickly 
than unbarked, often cracks so widely that it is quite unfit 
for slojd-work. When the bark is left on, the cracks may be 
numerous, but they will be small. Thick pieces crack more 
than thin pieces ; logs or round wood more than split wood ; 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 41 

sap-wood more than heart- wood. Care should be taken dur- 
ing seasoning that the air has free access to the wood on all 
sides. Wood which has been split with 'the axe is apt to 
crack at the ends ; this may be prevented by pasting paper 
over them. Portions of timber containing the pith and the 
adjacent annual layers, always crack ; such pieces are there- 
fore unavailable for work. When round timber is split in 
order to facilitate seasoning, it should be divided through 
the pith. 

Boards or planks are best dried in a drying shed, where Js^'aturai 
fresh air can circulate freely round each piece. The best J~'^^ "' 
way is to place the boards on their edges, with sufficient iy exposure 
space between, taking care that they are not twisted in any ^^ ^'^^ '*''*' ' 
way. If they are piled one on the other, pieces of dry wood 
should be placed between them, in order to separate them. 
For obvious reasons, none of the timber should touch the 
ground. 

Timber which has been felled at the proper time, takes no 
harm from exposure to a little rain in spring and early sum- 
mer, provided always that the air has free access, so that it 
may dry again quickly. Indeed, timber usually dries very 
rapidly out in the open air in early summer. The rain helps 
to wash out the sap, and the timber is thereby rendered 
more durable when thoroughly dried. 

When wholly or partially finished planks are laid by for 
future use, care must be taken that they do not lie one close 
upon the other, but that both sides are fully exposed to the 
air, to facilitate further drying and prevent warping. 

In the early stages of seasoning, evaporation goes on with 
tolerable rapidity, but afterwards it takes place more slowly, 
and timber must be kept in a dry and airy place for two or 
three years before it can be considered fully seasoned. Tim- when twi. 
ber is said to be seasoned when the quantity ot moisture it said to be 
contains coincides with that contained in the atmosphere. seasoned. 

As has been said above, the amount of water in timber 



42 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

seasoned as indicated, never falls below 10 per cent, of its 
weight. To decrease the water still further, it is necessary 
to dry the timber in ovens constructed for the purpose, 
or in heated air, or else to keep it for a long time in a warm 
place. 
Influence of Drying expels water only, not the essential elements of the 
the sap on somc of which part with P^reat difficulty from water, and 

also take it up again with great readiness when the timber is 
once more exposed to moisture. These properties of the sap 
make seasoning much more difficult than it would otherwise 
be, and retard the process considerably in wood which abounds 
in sap — e.g., beech, birch, oak, and walnut. 
Removal of To ovcrcome this difficulty, the sap may either be removed 
the sap. altogether, or its action may be neutralised. The first is 
accomplished by immersing the wood in cold water for some 
time, or in boiling water for a shorter time ; or, what is still 
better, by steaming it. In the second case the timber is 
impregnated with substances calculated to counteract the 
destructive efiects of the sap — e.g., a solution of common salt, 
vitriol, chloride of zinc, etc. These methods can, however, 
only be mentioned here incidentally, as any detailed descrip- 
tion would be entirely beyond the limits of this work. 

2. Precautions necessary to prevent Warping" and 
Cracking under special conditions. 

As shrinkage is greater in tangential than in radial section, 
the wood for any special purpose ought to be sawn out or split 
in the direction of the radii of the stem, in order that the 
article may the better preserve its form and size. There are, 
however, some practical difficulties which render it impossible 
to carry out this principle in all cases. 
Jointing Uniformity of texture, and consequently less tendency to 

pieces of crack or warp, is more easily secured in small pieces of timber 
thaA in large pieces, and consequently it is usual in the con- 
struction of articles to employ smaller pieces of wood than 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 43 

are required, and to joint them together ; and these pieces 
may often, without any disadvantage, be chosen from different 
kinds of wood, and may have their fibres running in different 
directions. Hence it is better in making a broad plane sur- 
face to select planks which have been divided in two, than 
to make it of whole planks. Planks containing the heart- 
wood nearest the pith which is generally cracked, are always 
divided in two to get rid of this portion. 

Jointino: also permits laro^e plane surfaces to shrink with- ^^^^^«s and 

panels. 

out injury to parts of the work already completed. For 
example, blackboards, the panels of doors, etc., which are set 
into a groove in a frame, are thus permitted to shrink with- 
out cracking. Table-tops are strengthened by blocks which 
fit into a groove in the framing, and are glued to the under 
part of the top. Broad pieces of wood are furnished on one 
side with clamps, the fibres of which run at right angles to 
those of the broad piece, and which are inserted in such a 
way that the wood of the broad piece can shrink without 
hindrance. 

III. The Decay of Timber. 

After vital action ceases in a tree, its substance, like that 
of other" organic bodies, undergoes a process of decomposition, 
which sooner or later terminates in the total decay of the 
wood. Decay takes place very rapidly if the timber is ex- 
posed to alternations of moisture, air, and heat. 

The wood fibres themselves have a high degree of durability, 
especially if the sap, which is the prime cause of decay, has 
been removed. Some of the constituents of the sap, e.g., starch 
and sugar, neither hasten decay nor retard it, while others, 
e.g., tannic acid and resin, counteract it. It is the albuminoids 
which are the cause of decomposition, and the sap-wood in 
which they abound is the part which decays most rapidly. 

The decay of timber is caused, in the first instance, by the Blue sur- 
fermentation of the sap, which in this state soon acts in--^"*^^- 
juriously on the wood-fibres. The first sign of this is a 



44 ^ HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

bluish tinofe on the surface of the wood. Timber which has 
assumed this bluish tinge is not only less durable and strong, 
but it is also extremely difficult to work. Though the fer- 
menting elements dry in the wood cells, they do not therefore 
lose their power. They remain dormant merely, and the 
application of moisture after the lapse of time is sufficient to 
wake them into activity. Hence, timber which is exposed 
to alternations of heat and moisture may very soon acquire 
a "blue surface," especially if kept where ventilation is 
deficient. 
Dry rot. jf ^]^q proccss of decay goes on further, fungi almost always 

make their appearance. One of the most destructive forms 
in which they appear is known as " dry rot." 

innsects. Timber is also destroyed by insects or worms, which bore 
their way through the wood, and often reduce the inner 
portion completely to dust before any signs of destruction 
appear on the outside. Wood which is rich in sap, e.g., birch 
and alder, is most liable to such attacks ; beech is less liable ; 
while the elm, the maple, and resinous needle-leaved trees, 
are seldom attacked. 

Means of Preventing" Decay. 

As the decomposition of the sap is the real cause of the 
decay of wood, the means taken to prevent decay are directed 
either towards the retardation of this decomposition or to 
the complete expulsion of the sap, e.g. : 

1. — The timber is cut down during the season of the 

year when there is least sap in the stem. 
2. — The timber is seasoned as thoroughly as possible, in 
circumstances which permit free access and circula- 
tion of air, and is protected not only during season- 
ing but afterwards, from alternations of moisture 
and dryness. 

The growth of fungus is prevented by exposure 
to light, and continuous and uniform ventilation. 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 45 

3. — The wood, after it has been made into articles, is 

preserved from damp by varnish, oil paint, etc. 
4. — The sap is got rid of by steeping the timber in 

water or steaming it in ovens. 

It is to be observed, however, that in this way the 

constituents of the sap which contribute to the 

durability of the wood, i.e., resin and tannic acid, 

are also removed. 
5. The timber is impregnated with some substance in 

solution which neutralises the effects of the sap. 
The two last named processes are not used for 

slojd timber. 

In conclusion, it may be added that when the sap is re- 
moved entirely, or when the timber is impregnated with 
some neutralisino- substance, it does not become worm-eaten. 
When insects attack wood which has not been treated in one 
of these ways, it is almost impossible to extirpate them. It 
has been recommended to apply an acid, e.g., muriatic acid, 
or a solution of camphor to the worm-eaten holes; but this is, 
generally speaking, not practicable, and it is, moreover, not a 
complete cure. 

C. Different kinds of Wood. 

I. Comparison of the Qualities of different kinds 

of Wood. 

The chief qualities of timber are : — strength, the ease or 
difficulty with which it is split, hardness, toughness, elasticity, 
texture, colour and smell, weight, durability, and its capacity 
for shrinking and swelling. The two last mentioned quali- 
ties have already been taken up. 

It is obvious that most of these qualities depend not only 
on the kind of tree from which the timber is obtained, but 
also on many incidental circumstances, such as climate and 
soil, the age of the tree, the season of the year when it was 



46 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

cut down, subsequent treatment, etc. It is therefore hardly 
possible to make any general statements regarding them 
which shall hold good in all cases. 

1. The strength of timber is shown by its power of 
resistance to pressure, rupture, tearing, and twisting. 

The oak and the Scotch fir present the greatest resist- 
ance to pressure. The oak, the ash, the spruce fir, and next 
after them the Scotch fir, the larch, and the aspen, resist 
rupture best. In this respect the beech and the alder are not 
so strong. The oak and the ash, and after them the beech, 
the spruce fir, the Scotch fir, and the elm, present the greatest 
resistance to tearing. 

2. The ease or difficulty with which different kinds of 
wood may be split. By this is meant the greater or lesser 
ease with which timber may be divided by a wedge-shaped 
tool in the direction of the length of the fibres. It is closely 
related to the quality of the fibres and the manner of their 
distribution. Wood which has grown quickly has long 
straight fibres, is free from knots, and is easily split. " Cross- 
grained " wood, the fibres of which twist and cross each other, 
and the wood of roots and of branches with knotty excres- 
cences, is difiicult to split. Wood from the lower part of the 
trunk nearest the roots is the most difficult of all to split. 

When the medullary rays are large and long as in beech 
and oak, or numerous and fine as in needle-leaved trees, 
timber is easily split in radial section, but all timber is 
harder to split in tangential than in radial section. 

The following timbers are difficult to split : — figured birch, 
hornbeam, elm, maple, and white-beam. 

The following are easy to split: — ash, beech, alder, oak, 
aspen, Scotch fir, spruce fir, lime, poplar, and chestnut. 

Old knotty oak, however, may present great difficulty. 

3. The density or hardness of timber is shown in the 
resistance it ofi'ers to the tools with which it is worked. It 
is impossible to giye definite statistics on this point, because 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 47 

it depends so much on circumstances, e.g., the varieties of 
texture in the same tree, the nature and arrangement of the 
fibres, the degree of moisture, the presence of resin, etc., etc. : 
the general rule, however, holds good, that close-grained 
timber with high specific gravity is hard (it being under- 
stood that comparisons are always made with seasoned wood). 
Seasoned timber is harder than green timber. Green heart- 
wood is harder than sap-wood. Resinous heart-wood is very 
hard, and this is also true of timber which has fine annual 
layers, as is shown especially in the extremely hard resinous 
knots often seen in planks. 

The resistance which timber presents to the axe is greatest Resistance 
at risfht angles to the lena^th of the fibres, and it decreases in ^^ *^^ "*^ 

, , , ^ . T and the 

proportion as the angle becomes more acute. It is least when saw. 
the blade of the axe is parallel with the direction of the 
fibres' length, as in splitting. 

The saw, on the other hand, works by tearing the fibres, 
and consequently it meets with most resistance in loose- 
textured timber with long tough fibres. Such timber makes 
the edge of the saw uneven. In close-grained timber with 
short fibres the saw works easily, and the edge keeps more 
even. Consequently, for heavy close-grained timber the saw 
does not require to be set so much. In certain kinds of 
timber moisture increases the toughness of the fibres, and on 
this account unseasoned timber is more difficult to saw than 
dry wood. 

The hardness of timber is very important in all cases 
where it is exposed to blows, concussions, and general wear 
and tear. 

For ordinary purposes the hardness of any piece of wood 
may be tested by cutting it with a knife. 

The hardest timbers of all are lignum vitse and ebony. 
The ordinary kinds of timber may be classified as follows : 
Hard : hornbeam, maple, apple, pear, oak, and beech. 
Medium : ash, elm, white-beam, walnut, birch, lime, and 
chestnut. 



48 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

Boft : Scotch fir, spruce fir, larch, alder, aspen, and poplar. 
As has, however, been indicated above, spruce fir with fine 
annual layers and resinous Scotch fir are often very hard, and 
they might thus find a place in the higher class. 

4. The tougliness and elasticity of timber. A piece 
of timber which may be bent without breaking, and which 
does not resume its former shape when the bending force is 
removed, is said to be tough; if it does resume its former 
shape, it is said to be elastic. Generally speaking, both these 
qualities co-exist in all timber, but one is usually more pre- 
dominant than the other, according to the kind of wood. 
Thus some timbers are said to be elastic and others tough. 

Unseasoned wood is tougher than dry wood, and what it 
gains in elasticity during seasoning it loses in toughness. 
Damp heat increases toughness ; hence hoops and sticks are 
" steamed " in order that they may be bent. 

As a general rule light timber is tougher than heavy 
timber, roots are tougher than stems ; sap-wood is tougher 
than heart- wood, and young timber is tougher than old. 

The toughest timbers are the following : — hornbeam, elm, 
ash, aspen, birch, juniper, hazel, osier, maple, and white-beam. 

Lime, alder, beech, and the heart- wood of oak are only 
mxoderately tough. 

Elasticity is increased by seasoning, and is generally great 
in heavy timbers. It is of great importance in the manufac- 
ture of many articles, e.g., masts, oars, wooden springs, the 
handles of spades, axes, hammers, etc. 

The following timbers are elastic : elm, ash, aspen, oak, 
spruce fir, birch, maple, and poplar. 

Hornbeam, alder, and Scotch fir are less elastic. 

5, The texture, colour aud smell of timber. Knowledge 
of these qualities is very important in connection with the 
recognition of difi'erent kinds of timber, and in estimating 
their value. 



AVOOD, OR TIMBER. 



49 



By texture is understood the way in which the vessels, 
fibres, medullary rays and annual layers are woven or con- 
nected together. (See fig. 1). 

Wood as it appears in cross section is said to be end way 
of the grain ; as it appears in radial and tangential section — 
parallel with the fibres — it is said to be length way of the 
grain, op with the grain ; and as it appears when we look 
across the fibres at right angles to their length, it is said to be 
across the grain. 

We distinguish between coarse and fine texture according Coarse and 
to the quality of the fibres, vessels, medullary rays and-^"^ ^^^^"'^'_ 
annual layers, which, taken all together, give to wood its 
characteristic appearance. Similarly we speak of long-fibred 
and of short-fibred texture, according as the wood " works " 
with long or short shavings. 

The colour of wood varies from white to deep black, with Different 
many intermediate shades of yellow, red, brown, etc., depending ^^^"^^ 
on the kind of tree. It varies not only in difierent kinds of 
timber, but in the same kind of timber, and even in the same 
tree. As has been said above, the heart-wood is always 
darker than the sap-wood. Certain kinds of timber, again, 
e.g., oak and mahogany, become darker with time. 

Our ordinary timbers are whitish, yellowish, brownish or 
reddish, and are not so highly coloured as tropical timbers, 
some of which are very striking in colour. 

The smell peculiar to many kinds of timber is a mark by y/^e gmeii 
which they may sometimes be recognised. This characteristic oftoood due 
smell does not proceed from the wood itself, for it has none. ' ^ 
It is due to the sap, and is always strongest in fresh sappy 
wood ; though seasoned timber sometimes has a very decided 
smell, which is often quite unlike that of the unseasoned 
wood. Needle-leaved trees have a strong smell of turpentine, 
and certain broad-leaved trees, e.g., the oak, often smell of 
tannic acid. Many trees have an agreeable smell, e.g., the 
cedar, juniper, the camphor-tree, etc. The smell of some 



50 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



Specific 
gravity of 
the cellular 
tissue. 



timber remains in it for a long time, and communicates itself 
to food kept in vessels made of it. 

A musty STYiell in timber is a sign of decay. 

6. The weig"!!! or specific gravity of timlber is very 
variablSj depending as it does on a number of different cir- 
stances. Hence it is impossible to give such definite 
statistics under this head as can be given in the case of 
metals and many other substances. We have to take into 
consideration the closeness or the looseness of the fibres, 
which determines the hardness or density of the wood ; the 
presence of more or less sap ; the climate and soil in which 
the tree has grown ; its age ; its diflferent parts ; the degree 
of seasoning, etc. 

The specific gravity of wood properly so called, i.e., of the 
cellular tissue which composes it, is very similar in all 
timbers, and even in the lightest kinds it is greater than that 
of water. Nevertheless, most timbers, owing to their porous 
nature, are lighter than water, and float in it. This is the 
case with all our indigenous trees after seasoning. A warm 
climate produces heavy timber ; and the heaviest timbers, 
such as ebony and lignum vitse^ are found in the tropics. 

The presence of water is the circumstance which most afiects 
the weight of timber. All timbers are heavier when newly 
felled than after seasoning. Hence, in determining the 
specific gravity of difierent kinds of timber, we must assume 
that the timber is fully seasoned. 

The average specific gravity of the most common kinds of 
timber is given as follows by competent authorities : — 



» 


NEWLY 


SEAS- 




NEWLY 


SEAS- 


] 


FELLED. 


ONED. 




FELLED. 


ONED 


The Hornbeam ... 


1.08 


0.72 


The Spruce Fir 


0.73 


0.47 


The Common Alder 


0.82 


0.53 


The Lime 


0.74 


0.45 


TheEhii 


0.95 


0.69 


The Common Larch 


0.76 


0.62 


The Apple 


1.10 


0.75 


The Maple 


0.90 


0.66 


The Common Ash 


0.92 


0.75 


The White-beam ... 


1.04 


0.86 


The Aspen 


0.80 


0.49 


The Pear 


1.01 


0.72 


The Birch 


0.94 


0.64 


The Rowan 


0.96 


0.67 


The Common Beech 


1.01 


0.74 


The Common Walnut 


0.91 


0.68 


The Oak 


1.10 


0.86 


Ebony 


— 


1.20 


The Com. Jmiiper 


1.07 


0.61 


Mahogany 


— 


0.81 


The Scotch Fir ... 


0.70 


0.52 


Lignum vitae 


— 


1.40 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 51 

The absolute weight per cubic foot in any given timber is 
ascertained by multiplying the specific gravity given above 
by 62.5 =the number of pounds in a cubic foot of water. 

7. The durability of timber. This and the circumstances 
which favour it have been touched on in connection with 
the sap, with seasoning, with decay, and the means of its 
prevention. 

The conditions under which timber is used have the 
greatest influence on its durability. Thus, timber which 
is kept under cover and protected from moisture is very 
durable, and may last for many centuries. Some kinds of 
timber are extremely durable if kept under water. Thus, ^'^«^"';^ 
the oak used in ancient lake-dwellings and bridges, or found tvoodunder 
in bogs, has been preserved for thousands of years. '^"'^^^^■ 

If timber is exposed to alternations of wmstijure and dry- ^' hen wood 
ness, its durability is diminished ; and yet, m most cases, it aurabic. 
is precisely in these unfavourable conditions it has to be used. 

Hence it follows that it is impossible to give precise The most 
details regarding the durability of timber. Under this head ^-^^JJ^^J^ 
all that can be done is to mention the trees which in all 
circumstances give the most durable timbers, viz. : the oah, 
and resinous, close-grained Scotch fir and larch. The ehn 
comes next to these. If exposed to alternations of moisture 
and dryness, oak is said to last one hundred years, birCh 
fifteen years, and beech not more than ten. Durability is 
also mentioned in the description of different kinds of 
timber, which follows. 

II. Characteristics of different kinds of trees. 

Here follows an enumeration of the different kinds of 
wood which are available for slojd work, together with a 
condensed statement of their properties, in order that, as far 
as is possible in a brief description, the reader may be made 
acquainted with each kind of timber. 

[The following kinds of wood can be easily obtained in 



52 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

England, and are therefore specially recommended : — Scotch 
fir, spruce fir, alder, birch, beech, oak, chestnut, lime, and 
poplar. See also p. 204. — Tks.] 

1. Needle-leaved Trees, 

The Seoteh iir (Pinus sylvestris). — The ripe timber is 
yellowish white or reddish white. The boundaries of the 
annual concentric layers are light brown in the heart-wood ; 
white in the sap-wood. It is the heaviest, hardest, and most 
resinous of all the needle-leaved trees, and has a tolerably 
strong smell of turpentine. Its resinous, fine-grained heart- 
wood is very durable. 

The spruce fir (Pinus ahies). — The wood is yellowish 
white. In a lonoitudinal section it shows dark reddish 
streaks. It is very elastic, and is easily split with the axe. 
As it contains a good deal of resin, it resists damp ; though, 
being less resinous than the pine, it is more easily glued. 
Like the pine, it makes excellent timber. Very hard knots, 
which loosen and fall out when the wood is seasoned, are, 
however, of frequent occurrence in this wood. 

The common lareli (Pinus larix). — The wood of this tree 
is reddish, with dark annual layers and white sap-wood. 
It warps but little, and does not readily become worm-eaten. 
It is more durable than the Scotch fir and the spruce fir. 

The common juniper (Juniperus communis). — The wood 
of the young bushes is white, and it deepens from yellow to 
brown as it increases in age. It is hard, tough, close, strong, 
and durable, and whenever it can be obtained large enough 
it is much in request for slojd articles. The juniper has a 
peculiar and agreeable smell. 

2. Broad-Leaved Trees. 

The hornbeam (Carpinus betulus). — The wood of this 
tree is white, very hard, heavy, close and very tough. The 
medullary rays are very little darker than the wood, and are 
not easily distinguished. They are curved, appearing in a 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 53 

longitudinal section like narrow inconspicuous flecks. The. 
wood is very difficult to split. It dries slowly and warps 
easily. It is very durable if kept dry, and is a favourite 
timber for slojd work. 

The common aider (Alnws glutinosa). — The wood is whit- 
ish or brownish-yellow, often deepening to brown, and in 
the newly-felled tree light red. The annual layers are diffi- 
cult to recognise ; the medullary rays are rather broad, and 
brown in colour. The timber is only of medium hardness, 
and is neither very tough nor very elastic ; it splits readily, 
and does not crack or warp easily. It is very durable if con- 
stantly kept wet, but it is of low durability if exposed to 
alternations in the degree of moisture. If felled at the wrong 
time it is speedily attacked by worms. Its close and even 
texture make it good timber for slojd work. 

The hoary-leaved alder (Alnus incana) furnishes timber 
which is whiter, finer, and closer than the preceding. 

The elm ( Ulmus montana, IT. campestris). — The colour of 
the young wood in general, and of the sap-wood in older trees, 
is whitish-yellow. The old heart-wood is reddish-brown, 
streaked and veined. The inner boundary of the annual 
layers is somewhat lighter in colour and looser in texture 
than the rest, and has visible pores. The medullary rays are 
very narrow and numerous, giving to this timber in longi- 
tudinal section a dotted and streaked appearance. This 
timber is moderately fine in fibre, tough, hard, given to warp, 
difficult to split, and not liable to the attacks of worms. Its 
durability under all circumstances is very great. It is often 
beautifully marked. 

The common ash (Fraxinus excelsior). — The colour of 
the young wood is white ; of the older, yellowish brown, 
deepening almost to brown in the heart-wood. The medul- 
lary rays are not easily distinguished. The annual layers are 
generally broad, and, as in the case of the oak, the large pores 
on their inner edge render them very conspicuous. This 



64 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

timber is tough, elastic, very hard, easily split, not liable to 
crack, and, if kept in a dry atmospbere, extremely durable. 
If exposed to the open air it is of low durability. It is much 
esteemed for its strength and toughness, and is used with 
advantage for springs of all kinds, tool handles, etc., etc. 
The young wood is used for barrel-hoops, etc. 

The aspen (Populus tremula). — The wood is white, with 
coarse annual rings. It is fine in texture ; tough, easily 
split, and warps but little. It is very durable if kept under 
cover or in the ground. It is not of much use in slojd work, 
and in Sweden it is used chiefly in the manufacture of 
matches. 

[The poplar (Populus). — The colour of the wood is a yellow 
or brownish white. The annual rings are a little darker on 
one side than on the other, and are therefore distinct. The 
texture is uniform, and there are no large medullary rays. 
The wood is light, soft, easily worked, and does not splinter. 
When kept dry it is tolerably durable, and it is not liable to 
shrink. — Trs.] 

The common birch (Betula alba). — The wood of the 
young tree is white. Older wood is reddish white in colour. 
The medullary rays are very narrow and scarcely distinguish- 
able. The timber is tolerably hard, and very tough ; it dries 
very slowly, and swells easily. It is very durable if kept dry, 
but is of low durability if exposed to the open air, and is very 
apt to become worm-eaten. 

The quality of birch varies very much, and depends greatly 
on climate and soil. Birch grown in favourable soil is 
straight in fibre, easily split and easily worked : — Birch 
grown in dry and stony ground or in marshy places is crook- 
ed in fibre and more or less knotty, gnarled and cross- 
grained, and difiicult to split. Timber of this kind is beauti- 
fully marked. In most parts of Sweden birch furnishes the 
greater proportion of the wood used in slojd, and takes the 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 55 

place of the beech and the hornbeam of southern Sweden and 
southern countries. 

The eommon beech (Fagus sylvatica). — The wood in the 
young tree is light brown; old wood is very dark. The 
medullary rays are large, glossy, and dark brown, and the 
general colour of the wood is uniform. The concentric annual 
layers are not specially conspicuous, but they are easily 
distinguished. Beech timber is hard, close, heavy, and easily 
split, especially in the direction of the medullary rays. It is 
inelastic and rather brittle. It dries very slowly, and warps 
easily. It is very durable under water and when kept dry, 
but if exposed to varying degrees of moisture it is the least 
durable of all timbers. It is highly valued for its hardness, 
and much used for barrels. 

The oak (Quercus rohur). — The sap-wood and the wood in 
young stems is nearly white. The heart-wood in older trees 
is brownish. The large pores on the inner edges of the annual 
layers, and the broad, yellowish brown, frequently glossy, 
medullary rays are specially noticeable. This timber is 
peculiarly hard, strong, and durable. It is not affected by 
alternations in the degree of moisture, and it is in all cir- 
cumstances the most durable of all our timbers. It dries 
slowly, and is very apt to warp unless thoroughly well 
seasoned. After being in water — especially salt water — for 
many years, its colour becomes bluish black. The oak fur- 
nishes better timber than any other tree of Northern Europe. 

[The chestnut (Castanea vesca). — The colour of the sap- 
wood is yellowish white ; that of the heart- wood is light to 
dark brown. The wood of the chestnut resembles that of 
the oak in colour, but it may easily be distinguished from it 
by the absence of the broad medullary rays which are found 
ill the oak. The timber is heavy, hard, elastic, and very 
durable if kept uniformly either dry or wet. If subjected 
to variations in the degree of moisture it is of low durability. 
— Trs.] 



56 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

The lime (Tilia). — The wood is usually white, soft, and 
light. The medullary rays are extremely fine, and the annual 
layers can scarcely be distinguished. It does not warp easily. 
It is of low durability, and is not very serviceable. 

The maple (Acer platanoides). — The wood is white, with 
very narrow and numerous medullary rays of a faint brown 
colour, which give it a beautifully " waved " lustrous appear- 
ance. The annual layers are inconspicuous. The wood is 
uniform in texture, hard, strong, tough, and difficult to split ; 
it presents a glossy surface to the plane, and does not craclv 
or warp readily. In consequence of these good qualities, it is 
much sought after for slojd timber. 

The wliite-beam (Sorhus Scandica). — The wood of the 
young tree is yellowish. Older wood is light brown or red- 
dish in colour. It is frequently speckled or veined. This 
timber is fine and uniform in texture, hard, close, and very 
tough. It warps but little, and is much valued as slojd 
timber. 

The pear and the apple (Pyrus). — The wood of the 
young tree is nearly white. Older wood is dark brown, 
sometimes red in colour, and often streaked. It is very fine 
and close in texture, hard, heavy and tough. The medullary 
rays are small, and they and the annual layers are incon- 
spicuous. It can be cut easily in all directions, and does not 
splinter, owing to the uniformity of its texture. 

The wood of the apple tree has a general resemblance to 
that of the pear, but it is closer, redder, and harder — indeed 
the apple furnishes one of the hardest timbers. The wood of 
the wild pear or apple is superior to that of the cultivated 
varieties. The wood of both trees is much esteemed. 

The FOWan (Sorhus Aucuparia). — The wood is whitish or 
light brown. In some respects it resembles the white-beam, 
but it is not so good. As slojd timber it may often rank 
with the birch. 

The common walnut (Juglans regia). — The wood of 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 57 

the young tree is almost white, loose in texture, and soft. 
Older wood is brownish grey or dark brown, and is often 
beautifully marked. It is hard and strong, and generally 
close in texture, though, like the oak, it has particularly 
large pores. The medullary rays are almost invisible. It 
dries very slowly, and shrinks a good deal. It is one of the 
most beautiful European timbers, and is extensively used. 



The following tropical timbers may also be mentioned : — 

Ebony (Diospyros). — From Africa and the East Indies. 
The sap-wood is quite white, the hearfc-wood generally quite 
black, though sometimes brownish black with white streaks 
and flecks towards its inner edge, which detract from the 
value of the wood. Its texture is so uniform that it is im- 
possible to distinguish the annual layers or the medullary 
rays. The timber is brittle, but very hard, close and heavy. 
On account of the three last named qualities, and its beauty, 
it is much esteemed, but it is too expensive to be used to 
any great extent. 

Mahogany (Swietenia Mahogani). — From Central America 
and the West Indies. Other kinds of timber are also sold 
under this name. When fresh the wood is generally reddish 
or brownish yellow, but it gradually darkens, and finally 
becomes almost black. It has narrow, rather inconspicuous 
annual layers, and small but distinctly visible pores. In 
longitudinal section the figuring of this timber is very 
beautiful. It has fleck-like or pyramidal markings, with a 
fine satin-like lustre. It varies much in hardness, weight, 
closeness, and general texture in diflerent varieties. Ma- 
hogany is under all circumstances very durable. It warps 
but little ; shrinks less than any other timber ; and is never 
attacked by worms. It is highly esteemed as timber, and is 
very extensively used. 

Lignum vitse (Guaiacum officinale). — From Central 
America. The wood is greenish or blackish brown, with 



58 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

yellowish and dark streaks in longitudinal section. It is 
heavy, resinous, very close-grained, and almost as hard as 
metal. It is twisted in fibre, very difficult to split, and there- 
fore not easy to work. Its extraordinary hardness and great 
durability make it valuable in the case o£ articles which are 
exposed to much wear and tear. 



59 



CHAPTER III. 

TOOLS. 

A. Choice of Tools. 

The tools used in slojcl teaching must be chosen with due choke of 
regard to the pupil's capacity. They ought to be neither J!^.^ ^g^^^. 
too large nor too heavy, but such as can be easily handled, -i-ng. 
It might perhaps be considered advisable to use tools slighter 
in make than those generally employed in slqjd-carpentry, 
and the question might be raised whether such small tools as 
are to be found in "children's tool-boxes" should not be 
procured. Tools of this description are, however, usually too 
inferior to be taken into consideration at all ; and, if specially 
ordered in a good quality, they would be much dearer than 
those sold in the ordinary course of trade. This applies 
particularly to tools made of iron or steel. Moreover, such 
small tools are particularly difficult to keep in order, because 
they are very slight and brittle. And further, a little 
experience in teaching proves that children from eleven to 
fourteen years of age require tools quite as substantial and 
durable as their elders. Whether or not a tool is too heavy 
depends upon the person who uses it, for one child may have 
the strength required to use a much heavier tool than can be 
used by another. In connection with this it should be noted, 
that if children are not accustomed, while receiving instruction, 
to use and to keep in order the tools used in ordinary life, it 
will be very difficult for them to manage them when they are 
older. It may be objected that if children use the ordinary 
knife, saw, axe, etc., they may easily hurt themselves ; but 
this is quite as likely to happen with " toy tools." Besides, 
it is the duty of the teacher to insist that the children pay 



60 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

attention to the manner of using the tools, and use them in 
such a way that they do not hurt themselves. 

Size of tools. Although we maintain that the tools used in slojd teaching 
should be of the size generally employed, it does not therefore 
follow that the largest size is to be selected, but rather that 
the smallest should be chosen, such as the little hands of the 
youthful pupil can efficiently wield without much trouble. 
The handle of the knife should not be larger than can be 
grasped, though the blade maybe of the usual size. The smooth- 
ing plane should be TJ inches long and 2f inches broad. The 
trying plane should not be unnecessarily long ; 22 inches is long 
enough, though the breadth ought to be 3J inches, or broad 
enough for an iron of 2 J inches. If the trying plane is 
narrower, it is difficult to plane a surface of any size, and 
the smaller tool would occasion more work and trouble than 
one of the dimensions given above. The handles of chisels 
and similar tools should not be larger than is necessar^^. 
The axe should not weigh more than 2 lbs. The frames of the 
bow saws should be of the lighter description of those used 
in carpentry. 

As one of the aims of slojd teaching is to develop the 
physical powers of the pupil, each separate exercise must 
lead up to the next in such a way that the pupil proceeds 
from easier to more difficult work. But the most perfect 
gradation of exercises arranged on this principle will not en- 
sure success if the teacher does not know how to choose 
suitable wood for the pupils' work, and does not take care 
that they have good tools in good condition. As we demand 
of the pupils work well executed and accurate in all its 
details, we are bound to see that they are provided with 
suitable wood and good tools. 

As regards suitable wood, the reader is referred to Chapter 
II. It need be merely named here that the wood must be 
sound, well seasoned^ straight in fibre, and, as far as possible, 
free from knots. 



TOOLS. 61 

Tlie tools selected should always be of the best quality, Quality of 
even if these should prove rather more expensive. Instead of 
buying a large number of inferior tools at once, a few good 
ones should be procured. But it is not enough to buy good 
tools, they must be kept in good order. Ability to keep 
tools in order is an indispensable qucdification in a good 
teacher of slojd, for if he lacks skill in this respect his Goodtooh 
teaching will also lack one of the first conditions of success, ^fj,^^*^^"'''' 
There are two rather complicated tools which are particularly 
difficult to keep in order, i.e., the plane and the savj. A 
great deal of energy is wasted in slojd teaching if the pupils 
work with badly set planes or with blunt saws. Hence 
special care should be bestowed on these tools. 

Practice in grinding tools and keeping them in order must Grinding 
be included in the instruction given. Great demands in this ^^^^^' 
respect must not be made at first, but they may be gradu- 
ally increased until the pupils, at least towards the end of 
the course, are able to grind a plane iron and sharpen a 
saw. If this is expected of the pupils, so much the more 
must it be demanded of the teacher. 

The description which follows attempts to give, to some 
extent, detailed knowledge of the tools which are used in 
educational wood - slojd, together with instructions for 
keeping them in good condition. The illustrations accom- 
panying the description are taken from selected tools and 
appliances, and the scale is indicated by the fraction after 
the name of the figure. Want of space prevents the insertion 
of complete representations of all the tools, etc. A few 
illustrations of this kind, particularly of benches and of a 
cupboard for tools, have been added on separate plates at 
the end of the book, for the guidance of those who wish to 
make these articles. The technical names are, generally 
speaking;", those employed in carpentry ; but a proportion of 
the names of tools, exercises, and methods of manipulation, 
have originated and been adopted in the course of the de- 
velopment of slojd teaching. 



62 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



B. Appliances for holding the v^ork. 

1. The bench is the article most frequently used for 
holding the work steady during its execution. It is the 
most indispensable part of the apparatus required for slojd. 




A complete 
bench. 



Fig. 5. Bench. Vso- 
A bench top, B front bench vice, C back bench vice, D bench well, E bench 
drawer or till, F front rail of bench box, aa bench pegs or hooks, bb holes for 
bench pegs, c vice tongue or key, ee screw-bolts, / back rail of bench box, gg vice- 
screws, h front rail of bench. 

The Single Bench (Fig. 5) is practically a strongly con- 
structed table, heavy enough to stand steady during the work. 
The bench top consists of a strong, hard, close piece of 
plank about 3 inches thick. For the purpose of holding the 
work fast it is provided either with one screw or two, ar- 
ranged in a particular way, called the hack bench vice and the 
front bench vice. A complete bench (Fig. 5) has both ; one 

Back bench of simpler constructiou (Fig. 8) has only the back bench vice. 

^^- At one end of the bench-top, to the right of the worker, a 

rectangular piece is cut away from the anterior edge, its 
length being parallel to the edge, and where this piece has 
been cut away a prismatical frame- work is moved by the 
turning of a wood-screw. The nut into which this screw 
catches is firmly fixed to the end of the bench top. The 
frame-work is directed partly by the screw, partly by 
separate holts, and the screw is held fast by means of a wedge 
or flat pin, which catches like a fork in a groove on the screw. 



TOOLS. 



63 



This arrangement is called the hack bench vice. The frame- 
work is perforated perpendicularly by one or more square 
holes, from 4 to 6 inches apart, and a row of similar holes is 
introduced in the bench top, in a straight line with those in 
the frame-work. When a plank is to be held in a horizontal 
position on the bench, a bench peg is placed in a hole in the 
bench vice, and another in a hole in the bench top at a dis- 
tance corresponding to the length of the plank, and the screw 
is applied. Care must be taken that the head of the bench 
peg does not rise above the upper surface of the wood, and 
also that, during planing, the iron of the plane does not come 
in contact with the head of the peg, a fault often committed 
through carelessness by beginners. 

The bench pegs (Fig. 6) are rectangular pieces of iron from 
8 to 10 inches long, which fit rather loosely into the holes of 
the bench top, and are provided on one side with a steel 
spring, in order that they may remain fixed at 
any desired height. The head of the peg is 
double-grooved, to hold the work securely. To 
make room for the head of the peg, the holes in 
the bench top are usually suflaciently enlarged 
at the upper end to permit the head to be 
pushed down, until its top is level with the 
bench top. 

The arrangement of the screw, to the left of Front bench 
the worker, is termed the front bench vice. It is much ^^'^^• 
simpler in construction than the back bench vice. Fig. 5 
shows its construction. A movable piece of wood is placed 
in front of the end of the screw, called the vice tongue or key 

(Fig. 7), partly to hold the work 
more securely, partly to prevent 
its being injured by the screw. 
When a long piece of wood is 
fastened into the front bench 
vice for edge-planing, it is ad- 



r~i 



Pig. 6. 
Bench Peg. ^/i 




Fig. 7. Vice Tongue or Key. ^/i 



visable to allow the under edge 



64 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



to rest upon a little block on a swivel, attached to the under 
side of the bench top. If the screws do not turn easily, the 
friction niay be reduced by rubbing them well with pul- 
verised plumbago. 

On the side of the bench farthest from the worker is a 
trough or channel, called the bench well, in which tools not 
in actual use may be laid. Triangular pieces of wood, firmly 
attached to the ends of this well, facilitate the sweeping out 
of shavings, etc. 

The different portions of the bench are fastened togetiier 
by dovetailing, mortising, and iron screws. 

The bench top rests upon feet or rails, and it is often 
furnished on the under side with a drawer or till. A simil;tr 
drawer may be connected with the rails. 

The wood used for the bench top should be oak, ash, beech, 
or hard pine ; for the screws, horn-beam or " figured " birch . 
for the well and the rails, fir or pine. 

The complete bench described above is too large for 
general use in school slojd, the space for which is usually 
limited. As only one person can advantageously work at it, 
it is also too expensive. 




Fig. 8. Single Bench. ^20- 
Top, 5 feet long by 1^ feet broad. Height, 2 feet 7 inches. Naas pattern. 

The bench represented in Fig. 8 is more suitable for schools 



TOOLS. 



65 



where many benches are required. It is at once simple and ^^nch after 
practical. It takes up little space, and it can be procured for pattern. 
one-half — ^indeed for one-fourth — of the cost of the bench 
first described. It is furnished with a back bench vice only, 
consisting of a piece of wood moving on bolts, and worked 
by a screw fixed with a forked wedge to the movable front 
jaw of the vice. The bolts must be firmly inserted in the 
detached portion of the vice, and must have their anterior 
ends made fast in a cross-piece ; otherwise the movable por- 
tion of the vice will not move easily and surely backwards 
and forwards by means of the screw. To fasten a piece of 
wood quite steadily in the vice it should be balanced as nearly 
as possible on the top of the screw. When this is not done, 
it has a tendency to fall to one side, and if this frequently 
happens the vice will finally be destroyed. 




IZI 




,-fo so 43 :io 30 w SO 60 fo eo so tao yno -/^ ^8o ■tito iso cfm/. 

<T1.1 n ; t I I I I \ \ I ( I ) _| I I H 

Fig. 9. Double Bench. 

This bench may also be adapted for two persons by intro- Adjustable 
ducing a screw in each end of the bench top, as indicated in ^^^^^f^^ 
Fig. 9. The bench top in this instance ought to be rather 
broader than in the preceding. The height of the bench 
ought to be adapted to the height of the worker, and ac- 
cordingly separate pieces of wood, provided with hinges, are 
attached to the upper or lower cross-bars of the feet, and by 
the raising or letting down of these the bench top is raised 
or lowered. 



66 



HAJSTDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



B. Trainofs j^^g, 10 is a bench of English manufacture, well adapted for 

slojd work, and is known as E. Trainor's Improved Bench. 

h 




Fig. 10. Trainor's Bench *. 

A bench top, B tool tray or bench well, C back strip, d tail (or back) bench 
vice, e side (or front) bench vice, / plane rest or fillet, g Merrill's bench stop, 
hh bench pegs, ii joint bolts, MM fore legs, NN rear legs, front bottom rail, 
P back bottom rail. 

This bench is constructed so as to be portable. It consists 
of a hard wood top A, 4 J inches thick, made of beech or 
birch, and is supported by a strong framework MM NN PO 
made of fir, and bolted and framed together. The forelegs 
MM are " strutted," in order to prevent the framework from 
shaking loose through constant use and pressure. The bench 
is 5 ft. long, and 2 ft. wide ; and it can be made from 2 ft. 6 
in. to 3 ft. high. 

The side or front bench vice, e, attached to the bench is 
made of metal, and is called " Crossley and Macgregor's Patent 
Instantaneous Grip Yice." The tail or back bench vice, d, i» 
of German pattern, and acts as a cramp vice in conjunction 
with the bench pegs hh. Only the screw part of this vice is 
made of metal. 

As was said above, this bench is well adapted for slojd 
work. It stands firmly in position without being screwed to 

* For prices of this bench see p. 215. 



WOOD, OR TIMBER. 



67 




the floor ; its vices, pegs, and stops are all new designs, and 
being made of metal, they are easy to work, and do not 
readily get out of order. The space Z underneath is specially 
constructed to admit of the fitting up of lockers and drawers. 
The Holdfast is a simple appliance which is often used to 
secure pieces of wood to the bench in sawing, boring, chiselling, 
etc. The holdfast (Fig. 11), con- 
sists of a round iron or steel rod, 
furnished at the upper end with 
a strong arm. It is inserted in a 
hole bored in the bench top, the 
diameter of which is very little 
larger than that of the cylindri- 
cal portion of the holdfast. The 
piece of work is laid under the 
arm, and secured by a stroke ^ig- H- 
from the mallet on the heel, in the direction a, and is 
loosened by a stroke in the direction 6. The holdfast may 
therefore serve the same purpose as the back bench vice. 

The shooting" "board is a contrivance which may be 
advantageously used when a partially planed piece of wood 
has to be squared up at right angles to a plane surface or a 
straight edge. 

The shooting-board (Fig. 12) consists of a piece of hard 
pine \\ inches thick, 8 inches broad, and from 2 to 2 J feet 
long, on one side of which there is a rebate, which serves as 
a guide to the trying plane when in action. At the further 
end there is a smooth rectangular block, the inner side of 
which is carefully 
secured at right 
angles to the re- 
bate of the plane 
rest. Under this 
plane rest a groove 
is hollowed out, in Fig. 12. Shooting-board, Vis- 

order that the Shav- "• ^^^"® '^®^*' ^- Block for square shooting, c. Rest for 

wood, d. Rebate and groove, e. Block for mitre shooting at 

ings may not pre- an angle of 45°. 




68 HAT^DBOOK OF SLOJD. 

vent the plane from lying close to the rebate during work. 
Instead of a rebate made in a thick piece of wood, two pieces 
may be fastened together, a narrower above a broader piece. 
In this way a rebate will be formed. Before they are fas- 
tened together, the under part of the inner edge of the top 
piece must be cut away so as to form the groove for shavings. 

When the shooting-board is in use, it is secured between 
two bench pegs. The piece of wood which is to be squared 
is held and pressed against the trying-plane with the left 
hand, the plane being directed by the right. Care must be 
taken not to plane anything off the edge of the rebate, or to 
hurt the fingers. 

The shooting-board may also be used for mitre shooting 
pieces of wood which are to be fastened together at an angle 
of 45°, by placing before the block for square-shooting a 
triangular block whose anterior edge forms an angle of 45° 
with the edge of the rebate. See Fig. 12. 



II. Handserews. 

Handscrews are used to secure the work to the bench, 
and to hold several pieces of work fast while a drawing is 
being made or while glue is drying. The bench itself, when 
not otherwise engaged, may be used with advantage in the 
case last named. 

Handscrews are made of wood or of iron, and are of 
various sizes. 

Wooden handscrews (Figs. 13, 14), consist of three 
straight pieces of wood, two of which are joined to the third 
on the same side, and at right angles to it. Horn-beam or 
tough birch is the best wood for the purpose. A strong 
wooden screw passes through one of the parallel arms and 
gives the necessary pressure. 

As the handscrew is sometimes subjected to a greater 
strain than the construction just described can bear, it is 
often strengthened by an iron rod. (See Fig. 14.) 



TOOLS. 



69 




A 



Fig, 13. Handscrew. i. Fig. 14. Handscrew. i. Fig- 15. Adjustable 

Handscrew. ■^. 

When the screw is applied, one hand only should grasp the 

handle, and the other should take hold of the screw either 

above or below the nut. Otherwise, if the pressure is great, 

the screw may break. If the screw should go off the 

straight during the process, a light blow from the mallet on 

the lower part will put it right. A piece of wood should 

always be laid under the point of the screw, to prevent 

marks on the work. 

[The English hand- 
screw (Fig. 16) differs 
from the Swedish 
handscrew in having 
two screws a a in- 
stead of one. These 
screws work in oppo- 
site directions,through 
two square wooden 
cheeks, h h. — Tks.] 




Fig. 16. English Handscrew. 
a a screws, & b cheeks. 



70 



HANDBOOK OF SLQJD. 




ThumbscFew cramps are now made 
of wrought iron. This gives strength 
without weight or clumsiness. These 
screws are very useful, and easily 
managed. (See Fig. 17). 

When broad pieces of wood have to 
be glued together, and the handscrews 
already described are not large enough, 
and the bench is not available, use is 
made of a screw in which a movable 
block is substituted for one of the 
parallel arms. Such screws are called 
Fig. 17. Iron Haiidscrew, adjustable handscrews (see Fig. 16). 

or Thumbscrew cramp, i. 



C. Setting out. 

It is often necessary for accurate workmanship to draw 
or mark the outlines of the pattern object on the wood, at 
various stages of the work. This is done by tracing round 
the outline of the model, by copying a drawing, or by means 
of given measurements. 

The following tools are necessary : — 

I. The metre-measure 

for measuring off and 
subdividing measure- 
ments. A rule of hard 
wood, one metre or half 
a metre long, divided 
into centimetres and 
millemetres, is the best 
for the purpose. A thin 
folding rule of strong wood or ebonite may be used for less 
exact measurements, and is convenient to carry about, but is 




Fig. 18. Folding Metre-measure. 



TOOLS. 



71 



not altogether trustworthy, on account of the looseness of its 
construction, and the gaps at the joints.* 

II. In dpawing" straight lines use is made of 
an ordinary ruler and a lead pencil, but when 
great accuracy is required a marking" point 
should be used. This consists of a piece of steel, 
tapering to a sharp point, about 4 inches long and 
I inch thick, inserted in a handle (Fig. 19). 

III. In drawing lines parallel to the edges of 
a piece of wood, the marking" gauge is used. 

Many different kinds are made, but those gener- 
ally used agree in the main details. They consist 
of a piece of wood, the stock, which has at least 
two parallel plane surfaces. A spindle, either 
circular or square in cross-section, passes through 
a mortise in the stock. At one end of the spindle 
is a sharp lancet-shaped steel marher. Some Marking-point 
Swedish marking gauges have two spindles. ^/s- 

That side of the stock which is placed against the edge to 
which the lines drawn are to be parallel, may vary in length, 
but when lines are drawn parallel to a straight edge (the 
most usual case), the longer the stock is the better, because 
this facilitates the accurate management of the tool, and 
enables even an inexperienced hand to gauge. 

(1.) Marking gauge 
with rectangular long 
stock and cylindrical 
spindle (Fig. 20). The 
stock is sawn into at one 
end as far as the mortise, 
and to secure the spindle after insertion this end is furnished 
with a screw, by means of which the spindle is held fast in 



Fig. 19, 




Fig. 20. 



Marking gauge, 
patent. ^4* 



Lundmark's 



* Where the Enghsh system of measurement is followed, a ^!^^o/clc»^ rule is used, 
divided into eighths of an inch on one side, and into sixteenths on the other. 
The use of the metre-measure is, however, strongly recommended. (See foot- 
note, page 13]. — Tes. 



72 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 




the manner indicated in Fig. 20. If a thumbscrew and nut 
are substituted for this screw, the necessary pressure can be 
more easily and surely produced. (See Plate X). 

(2.) Marking g-auge (Fig. 21) with rectangular long stock 
and rectangular spindle. The spindle is held in place by 
wedges. This is a simple and inexpensive marking gauge, 
invented by Herr Alfred Johansson, head-teacher at Naas. 
It is recommended as a useful and practical tool for school 
purposes. {See Plate X.) 

The long stocks of both 
these marking gauges 
give them the advantage 
already indicated over 
those hitherto in use, i.e.. 
Fig. 21. Marking-gauge. ^U. they enable inexperi- 

enced workers to gauge without difficulty. 

The English mark- 
ing gauge (Fig. 22) 
differs from the 
Swedish one in 
having a thumb- 
Fig. 22. English Marking-gauge. screw a on one side 

a. Thumbscrew. of the stOCk, which 

works against the spindle and holds it in position. 

The Marker. The marker must be kept well filed and pointed to secure 
fine distinct lines, parallel throughout with the edge. The 
side farthest from the stock should be straight, and as nearly 
as possible parallel with the side of the stock. The inner 
side of the marker, on the contrary, should be slightly convex. 
The marker is thus calculated to cut inwards away from the 
edge, and does not " run off the lines " as a bad marker does, 
when it meets with a hard layer of autumn wood in cutting 
in the direction of the grain. With a good marker the gauge 
should act easily and well without exertion of any kind on 
the part of the worker. 




TOOLS. 



73 




(3) The cutting" gauge has a parallelepiped shaped spindle 
secured by a wedge (Fig. 23). Instead of a pin-shaped 
marker it is provided 
with a thin steel cutter, 
adjusted by means of a 
pin. Cuttings more or 
less deep may thus be 
made on the surface of 
the work. This tool is Fig. 23. Cutting Gauge. J. 

chiefly used for gauging across the grain, and in setting out 
for grooving and dove-tailing. 

In this, as in all marking gauges, it is important that the 
marker should be inserted in such a way that the inner side, 
and consequently the point, is slightly inclined outwards from 
the side of the stock. 



IV. Compasses. 

1. The compass generally used in slojd is 
a simple one made of steel with a hinge. As 
it is often necessary to maintain the distance 
between the arms unaltered, this compass is 
provided with a bow, which is attached to 
one arm, and which can be secured to the 
other by a screw. A compass of this kind is 
called a bow-Compass (Fig. 24). 

When segments of large circles have to be 
described, beam-COmpasses are used. In 
place of the arms of the ordinary compass, 
these are furnished with trammels, aa, united 
by a cross-piece or beam, b, and pointed at 
one end, where there is a steel pin. One of the trammels is 
fixed to the cross-piece ; the other is movable, and is adjusted 
by means of a pin. 




Fig. 24. 

Compasses. |. 



74 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 




Fig. 25. Trammel Heads, or Beam ConT^sses. 

aa. Trammels, bb, Beam^ *.'' •.,..„ 



.4i^K' 





Fig. 26. Caliper Compasses. ^. 
turned away from one another (Fig. 26) 



^2/ Th4>Calipe^ompass 

is- .nsed^wtot med^ure the 
thickness o^ roi:gid or oval 
objects. ' This compass has 
very strong curved arms 
with points which taper 
obliquely";' The ordinary 
caliper "compass may be 
used to, TSieaiSui^ie^fljhe dia- 
meter d£..>a hole, by turn- 
ing tjie -arms, round the 
hinge?^uMl the points are 



V. Squares and Bevels. 

Squares are used for testing right angles, bevels for testing 
angles of various sizes. 



TOOLS. 



75 




The Square consiste of a short 
thick piece called the stock, with a 
longer, thinner piece at one end, and 
at right angles to it, called the blade. 
The stock projects beyond the sides 
of the blade, and the tool can be 
easily applied to the straight edge of 
a piece of wood, that lines may be 
drawn on the surface at right angles 
to this straight edge. All the angles 
of the square, exterior as well as 
interior, must be perfect right angles. 
This is not only essential for the 
operation just described, but also Fig. 27. Wooden Square, i. 
because the square is used for testing solid angles, e.g., the 
edge of a plank, a corner, etc. 

Every good collection of tools should 
include several squares of different sizes, 
e.g., with blades 6, 8, 12, and 18 inches 
long. 

The square should be made of hard 
well-seasoned wood, warranted not to 
warp. To give greater durability the 
blade is often made of steel, and the wood 
of the stock faced with brass on the inner 
side (Fig. 28). Still stronger and more 
trustworthy squares are made with steel 
blades and cast-iron stocks. Squares of Fig. 28 
this kind are particularly useful as testing 
squares, and one ought to be included in every good collection 
of tools. 



Wooden 
squares. 



Steel 
squares. 



Square with 
steel blade, k 



To test a square. The blade is laid on the plane surface 
of a block of prepared wood, with the stock against a 
perfectly straight edge. Lines, drawn against each side of 
the blade, are then made on the wood. The square is next 



Ife^ 



76 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



To test a 
plane sur- 
face. 



reversed, the stock is placed as before, and the edges of the 
blade are placed close to the lines previously made. Lines 
are then drawn once more along the edges of the blade. If 

these lines coincide, or are perfectly 
parallel with those made first, the square 
is correct 



2. The set-bevel (Fig. 29) consists, 
like the preceding, of a stock and a blade, 
but the latter, which generally extends 
beyond the end of the stock, is attached 
in such a way that it forms on one side 
an angle of 45°, and on the other an angle 
of 135°, or the complementary angle of a 
straight angle. It is used when a rec- 
tangular corner is made by joining 
together pieces cut at an angle of 45°. 
Such pieces are said to be mitred. 

In the wooden bevel the 
blade rotates on a screw in 
the stock. To secure the 
blade in any given position 
the screw is furnished with 
a nut, by means of which it 
may be screwed fast. (Fig. 
30.) 




Fig. 29. Set-bevel or 
mitre-bevel. 1;. 




Fig. 30. The Wooden Bevel. 



VI. Winding" laths or straight edg'es. To test the ac- 
curacy of plane surfaces, a long, perfectly straight ruler or 
straight edge is used. When this is placed on the surface 
in various directions, there must be complete contact be- 
tween it and the surface. A still more delicate method of 
proof is furnished by the double straight edge, or two 
straight edges exactly the same (Fig. 31). In applying the 
test the straight edges are placed one at each end of the 
piece of wood, and parallel to one anoth-er. On careful 



TOOLS. 



77 




Winding laths or straight edges. 



inspection, if the surface is level the upper edges of the 
rulers will be found to be in the same plane. The straight 
edges, when not in use, are held together by a couple of pegs. 

The edge of the trying-plane is often used instead of the 
straight edge, and two trying-planes instead of the double 
straight edge. See further under "face planing," p. 132. 

D. Tools used for cutting up -w^ood and 
making the articles. 

I. Saws. 

The saw is an indispensable tool, and in the case of most 
articles it is the first used. The hlade is made of thin steel 
of various breadths, on one edge of which a series of sharp 
points form the teeth. The steel must be soft enough to be 
acted on by the file, and to admit of the teeth being slightly 
turned aside without breaking ofi! 

The saw acts by tearing or cutting the fibres of the wood 
as the teeth of the blade pass over them. The teeth are, 
therefore, the characteristic part of the saw, and its efficiency 
depends on their form, size, and quality. 

The shape and size of the teeth vary considerably in 
different kinds of saws. The form generally used in wood 
slojd is shown in Fig. 32. The form of the teeth is that of 



78 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 




Fig. 32. 



a scalene triangle, the base 
of which is formed by the 
blade. The shortest side 
froms an angle of 80°-90° 
with the base. In the frame 
saw (Fig. 37, B), the angle 



Form and 




Teeth of a bow saw for 
ripping. \. 

is 90° ; in the bow-saw, the dove-tail saw, etc., it is 80°-85°. 

The teeth of any given saw must always be alike in size 
position of ^^^ shape, and must always be set at the same angle. The 

the teeth oj J- ' " i • i i -xi, 

a saw. shorter side of the teeth, being nearly at right angles with 
the blade, is the cutting side, and in working the saw this is 
the side which should enter the wood. When the saw is 
drawn back, the more sloping side of the teeth has very little 
effect upon the fibres, and the saw " goes empty." 

The teeth of the bow-saw 
for cross cutting form an isos- 
celes triangle of 50° between 
the teeth. A saw of this 
description cuts equally well 
backwards or forwards 
The space between the teeth must be great enough to leave 
room for the sawdust until the saw has carried the latter 
beyond the wood. Now, as the sawdust occupies more 
space than the wood from which it is produced, the teeth 
of the saw must be considerably longer than the depth of the 
cut made each time the saw passes through the wood, and 
the point only of the teeth must be allowed to cut the wood, 
to prevent hindrance to their action by an accumulation of 
sawdust. If the sawdust prevents the free passage of the 
saw, or if it clings about the teeth, it is either because the 
teeth are too small, or because too much pressure is laid on 
the saw. 

Why the saw It is almost impossible to avoid considerable friction 

muzt be set. ]jqj^y^qqy^ iy^q blade and the sides of the cut, and this friction 

is increased by the sawdust which accumulates at the sides 



Fig. 33. Teeth of a bow-saw for 
cross-cutting, or wood-saw. 



T» 



Leyigth oj 
the teeth. 



TOOLS. 



79 




of the blade. It is therefore necessary to give the blade a 
certain amount of ''play ;" in other words, the breadth of the 
cut must he greater than the thickness of the blade. This is 
effected by bending the teeth alternately a little to the one 
side and to the other, or, as it is termed, by setting the saw. 

Setting" is performed by means of the Saw-set, a steel 
blade yV inch 
thick, the edges 
of which are 
indented by 

notches of var- Fig. 34. Saw-set. ^. 

ions breadths. Some English Saw-sets are furnished with 
an. adjustable slide rest. In setting a saw the blade is 
fastened into Saw Sharpening" Clamps (Fig. 35) and these 
are screwed to the bench. One tooth after another is grasped 
by the notch of the Saw-set best adapted to the thickness of 
the tooth, and the blade of the Saw-set being held in such 
a way as to conceal the point of the tooth, the latter is then 
turned sharply aside. It must not, as is 
sometimes done, be twisted at the same time 
in the direction of the length of the blade, 
as this may cause it to break off. Great 
accuracy is required in the operation, and 
the setting should never be so extreme that 
the width of the cut is more than double the 
thickness of the teeth. If this width is 
exceeded the saw will not act easily. 

Considerable practice and skill are requir- ^^?- ^^\ ^^^ ^^^J^^' Unevenly 
m • J. i? - 1 - , 1 ^^^^S clamps. One set saws. 

ed to set a saw. The points of the teeth half loosely fastened 

should form a line exactly parallel to the to the other by means 

length of the blade, but it often happens that of wood screws, i. 

some teeth project beyond this line and others fall within it. 

This fault may be remedied to some extent by drawing the 

blade between a couple of gouges, fixed points downwards in 

a piece of wood, with the convex sides facing one another. 




80 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



Setting 
tongs. 



Saw blades 
with thin 
backs. 



Sharpening 
the saw. 



The blade of the saw is placed between them, teeth upwards, 
and the points turned from the operator, or in the direction 
from dtoc (Fig. 32), the handles are grasped with one hand 
to bring the gouges close together, and the blade of the saw 
is drawn forwards between them. 

In consequence of the difficulty of setting a saw evenly 
and at a good angle, many different kinds of saw-sets and 
setting-tongs have been devised. The latter are intended 
to be adjustable for any desired inclination of the teeth. 
Some of these tools, however, are not practically useful, and 
those which are fully adapted for use are generally too expen- 
sive for ordinary purposes. 

As indicated above, setting must not go beyond a fixed 
limit. Provided that the saw has free passage through the 
wood, the finer the cut it makes the better ; and much less 
inclination of the teeth is necessary, in the case of dry timber, 
than in unseasoned or loose-fibred wood. 

Less setting is also necessary in the case of saw-blades 
which increase in thickness towards the teeth. These are 
made in the best manufactories, and are always preferable 
to blades of equal thickness throughout. So-called compass 
saws often have blades of this kind, and require no setting. 

Quite as important as the setting of the saw is its sharpen- 
ing, and it is often necessary to perform both operations at 
the same time. 

To sharpen a saw, it is secured in the saw-sharpening 
clamps ; and the ordinary kinds of saw used in wood slojd 
are sharpened by means of a triangular file (Fig. 36). 



Fig. 36. Trianguliir or Thrce-squiiru File. -^.' 

Care must be taken that the two sides of the file which 

* The file represented in the illustration is a single-cut file ; but a double- 
cut file should be used. — Trs. 



TOOLS. 81 

are to be used form the angle necessary to produce the in- 
clination in the edges of the teeth indicated above. This 
being secured, the file is drawn across the blade at right 
angles to it. Every indentation must be filed equally deep, 
or, in other words, the point of each tooth must stand equally 
high. The row of teeth is next tested with the straight edge, 
and if any of the teeth stand higher than the others, they 
must be topped or filed down with a fine broad file, and then 
sharpened once more. 

Sharpening is begun at the end of the blade, towards 
which the points of the teeth are turned, or from c to " c^ 
(Fig. 32). The degree thus produced on the points is always 
in the direction to which the teeth are turned, not away from 
it. In the latter case, the saw would be rather blunt. Each 
tooth must be carefully filed, that its edges may be quite 
sharp, and the cutting side quite straight. 

Should the saw, after sharpening, be insujB&ciently set, it 
must be set again, after which the file must be once more 
passed over the teeth to remove any irregularities. Generally 
speaking, setting precedes sharpening. 

Sharpening is sometimes performed by passing the file 
obliquely over the edge of the blade, instead of at right angles 
to it. The edges of each tooth are thus sharpened obliquely 
from within outwards (see Fig. 33). The file is first passed 
obliquely through every alternative tooth-space. The saw is ^^^^'i^^^v 
then reversed, so that its ends change places, and the remaining teeth. 
spaces are operated on in the same way. This gives a knife- 
like edge to both sides of the teeth, and makes the saw cut 
particularly swiftly and well. The common wood-saws, some 
tenon-saws, and hand-sazus, are sharpened in this way. 

It need hardly be added that setting and sharpening are 
not only necessary in the case of new saws, but also as often 
as the teeth become worn or blunt. 



82 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



The saws now to be described may be classed in two groups, 
i.e., saws with frames, and saws without frames. 

The former have the ends of the blade fastened into a 
frame, the tension of which may be regulated to produce the 
necessary amount of resistance. In the latter kind of saw 

this power of resistance is 
given by means of the greater 
breadth and thickness of the 
blade, or by setting the back 
of the blade in a binding of 
metal. This binding is called 
the saw-back. 

1. Sa"ws with Frames, 

1. The Frame Saw (Fig. 87) 
is the largest saw used in 
Slojd. It is used for sawing 
up planks and other pieces 
of wood lengthwise into thin- 
ner pieces. It is worked by 
two people, and in a hori- 
zontal direction. The blade 
has from 3 to 4 teeth per inch 
and it is fastened into an 
oblong wooden frame, mid- 
way between the side-rails. 

The ends of the blade are 
enclosed in and st '^i.gthened 
by pieces of v hite-iron, and 
are fastened by the attached 
pieces run '-ig through each 
top-rail. . nsit-j is produced 
Fig. 37. A. Frame Saw. by turning t'le y luo-ed nut. 

a blade. 6 side-rail c top-rail. cZ winged ^he Cutting side of the teeth 
nut and saw-blade attachment, ^j;. , ° 

B. Saw blade end with attachment, i is at an angle of 90°. 




TOOLS. 



83 



2. Bow Saws (Fig. 38) are of different sizes. They are 
much used in wood-slojd, not only in the earlier, but in the 
later stapfes of work. Bow saws have all the same kind 
of frame, consisting of a bar called the stretcher, longer than 
the blade and parallel to it, at each end of which there is 
either a square mortise or a fork -like notch for the recep- 
tion of the cross-pieces or side-arms. The latter, though care- 
fully fitted in, yet have a certain amount of play at the ends 
of the stretcher, in order that they may be drawn closer 
to each other on either side of the stretcher when the saw is 
tightened. At one end of each side-arm there is a round 
hole, through which passes a well- 
fitting peg with a handle. This peg 
is sawn through the middle length- 
wise to form a slot for the saw blade, 
which often extends a certain length 
into the handle. The blade of the 
saw is narrower at the ends where it 
enters the handle. In it are one or 
two holes, through which the fasten- 
ing pin runs. 



Blades fastened in this way often 
twist when tightened, and conse- 
quently cut badly. This happens 
especially when the axis of the handle 
is not exactly in line with the blade. 
This defect may be remedied by sub- 
stituting for prolongations of the 
blade itself, the white-iron attach- 
ments (Fig. 39), and securing them in 
the usual way. The ends of the 
blade are fastened between the plates 
of the attachment merely by a screw 
or nail, in order that the blade may 
be freely adjusted. 




Fig. 38. Broad-webbed 

Bow-saw. 

a stretcher, bb side-arms, c blade. 
d tightener, e string. / end 
of blade with attachment. 
g handle. yV. 



84 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

The side-arms are connected at the other end by several 
strands of strong string, which are twisted together by a 
tightener, in order to give the required tension to the blade. 
When the string is put on, the frame is fastened between the 
bench pegs. 

The stretcher is made of fir or pine; the side-arms of harder 
wood, e.g., beech or oak. The different parts of the frame 
are made as light as is compatible with strength, that the 
saw may not be too heavy to manage with one hand. 

Manner of j^^ workiufif, the saw should be 

holding the ° 

saw. .^ firmly grasped by the side-arm 

just above the handle. In the 




case of the lighter description of 

saws, the handle, as well as the 

Fig. 39. Saw-blade end, lower part of the side-arm, should 

with attachment. |. he held in the hand, and the index 

finger should steady the blade. 

Generally speaking, the blade is fixed obliquely to the 
plane of the frame ; partly that the worker may saw deeply 
without hindrance from the frame, and partly that he may 
be able to see the line which the saw is to follow. 

S?&to"r^ In tightening the blade — which is best done by turning 
both handles simultaneously — care must be taken that it is 
perfectly straight. Otherwise a straight cut can hardly be 
obtained. 

If the saw is out of use for any length of time, the tightener 
should always he slackened. When this is not done the side- 
arms may become twisted. 

Bow-saws have different names, depending on the nature 
of the blade. The " hook," i.e.y angle of the teeth is shown 
in Fig. 32. 



TOOLS. 



85 




A. The Broad-we]3lbed Bow-saw is shown in Fig. .38. Its 
blade is 1 to 1 J inches broad. It is used 
in numerous cases, e.g., in sawing off long 
slips of wood, where a straight cut is all 
that is required. It has 4 to 5 teeth 
per inch. 

B, The Turn-saw (Fig. 40). The frame 
resembles the preceding, but the blade is 
very narrow — about J inch, or very little 
more — because it is used to produce cur- 
vilinear cuts. The toothing is very fine — 
7 teeth per inch — and the setting is 
sometimes less than in the bow-saw, that 
the cut may be accurate, and not unneces- 
sarily broad. Fig. 40. Turn-saw. ^\. 

Turn-satus, the blades of which are over half an inch in 
breadth, are also used. These are called broad-wehhed turn 

saws. 

2. Saws ■without Frames. 

1. The Hand-saw (Fig. 41) has a very broad blade, which 
is narrower at one end, and is provided at the broader end 
with a convenient handle. The lare'e blade gives it sufficient 
strength, and this is often increased by the thickness of the 
blade, which may exceed that of the frame-saw. The teeth 
are set to cut when the worker pushes the saw away from 
him, but not when the saw is drawn back. 

This saw, distinguished for its simplicity and convenience 
in working, is in general use in England and North America, 
but is not much used in Sweden. 




Fig. 41. Hand-saw. 



86 



HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 




;9^^;yyyv^^sjwv^wvijvs/vwy'^^ 



2. The Dovetail saw (Fig. 42) has a very broad blade of 
equal breadth throughout, with a handle. To give sufficient 
strength to the blade, its upper edge is enclosed in an 

iron back. This 
thick back 
limits the depth 
of the cut ; con- 
sequently this 
saw is only 
usedfor shallow 
Fig. 42. Dovetail-saw. ^. incisions, e.g., 

in sawing out tenons, dovetails, etc. This saw has 10 to 12 
teeth per inch. The shape of the teeth is shown in Fig. 32, 
but they are often sharpened with advantage in the manner 
shown in Fig. 83. 

[3. The Tenon-saw is practically the same as the dovetail- 
saw, but it is rather larger, and it has what is called a Box- 
handle, somewhat like that of the hand-saw. — Tes.] 

4. The Compass-saw (Fig. 43). The blade is very nar- 
row, and terminates in a point. This saw is used when 
.^^^ an excision 

) has to be 

made in the 
centre of a 
piec e of 
Fig. 43. Compass-saw. i. work, and 

cannot be begun from the edge. For this purpose a hole must 
be bored, into which the point of the saw can be inserted. 
To give the blade sufficient strength it is made tolerably 
thick, but it becomes thinner towards the back. Compass- 
saws are of various sizes, and the teeth are set in different 
ways. The number of teeth varies from 5 to 12 per inch, but 
their form is in most cases that shown in Fig. 32. 

4. The Groove-saw * (Fig. 44) has a tolerably thick blade 



* Unknown in England, but recommended as useful. — Trs. 



TOOLS. 



87 



1 




of equal breadth throughout, the upper edge of which is 
entirely enclosed by a handle, which is worked by both 
hands. The teeth are inclined towards the worker, and 
consequently act when he draws the saw towards him. 

It sometimes 
happens, especi- 
ally in clamping 
and grooving, 
that an incision 
must be made in 
a broad flat piece 
of wood, and in 
many cases it 
must not be Fig. 44. Groove-saw. i 

carried to the edge. With the exception of the tenon-saw, 
the saws hitherto described cannot be used for this purpose. 
The groove-saw is perfectly adapted for it, whereas the tenon- 
saw is not quite so convenient, because the setting of its teeth 
is not suitable, and it has only one handle. 

II. The Axe. 

After the saw the axe is one of the most useful tools in the 
earlier stages of any piece of work. Axes are of various 
kinds, manufactured for different purposes. An axe of 
American construction, very suitable for slojd work, is shown 
in Fig. 45. The edge and faces are slightly curved, and 
ground on both _^ 

sides. The axe 
should not weigh 
more than about 
2 lbs., that it 
may, without 
trouble, be wield- 
ed by one hand. Fig. 45. Axe. Ohio pattern, f 
The handle, of hard and tough wood, such as oak or ash, 
should be curved so as to fall well into the hand, and the axe 





Grinding 



88 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

shaft must be firmly secured by wedges into the eye of the 
axe-head. 

In working with the axe the wood is supported on a block, 
formed of an evenly sawn-off piece of the trunk of a tree. 
The best tree for this purpose is the poplar. 

The surface of the block must always be kept free from 
sand, which would destroy the edge of the axe. 

It is of the utmost importance for beginners to hold the 
piece of wood in such a way that the hands may receive no 
injury. 

In grinding' (see under this head, pp. 115-118) the axe 
the axe. q^-^^ ^U other edge-tools, the tool must be held steadily 
against the grindstone, in order that the bevelled edge may 
be quite regular and of the same breadth, not waving. The 
two bevelled edges should form an angle of about 20". 

III. The Knife. 

Asuitaue The huife is the slojder's indispensable and most important 

siojd icnife. ^^^Y^ ^^^ ^|. -g |.^Q ^^,g^ ^Q ]3Q placed in the hands of a beginner. 

It is therefore important to select for slojd suitable knives 

of the best quality. The blade of the slojd knife should be 

made of good steel, about 4 inches long, and not more than 

f inch broad. 

% The edg e 

-E^^-^^^^"-^ should be 

Fig. 46. Slojd-knife— Naas pattern, i. straight, and 

the two faces which form it should extend over the entire 

breadth of the blade. The back of the knife should not be 

more than -^-^ inch thick. The blade ought not to taper to a 

dagger-like point, but should terminate as is shown in Fig. 

46. The best angle for the edge is 15°. The other end of 

the blade terminates in a tang which slots into the handle. 




TOOLS. 



89 




A commoner, 
though by no 
means so suit- 
able form of 

knife is shown Fig. 47. Slojd knife, i. 

in Fig. 47. Directions for using the knife are given in Chap. 

y. 

I¥.— The Draw-Knife. 

This consists of a steel blade with an edge formed by 
grinding on one side only. This blade is furnished at both 
ends with handles, at right angles to it, and in the same 
plane. The tool is worked with both hands, so that the 




Fig. 48. Draw-knife. J. 
whole strength of the slojder can be thrown into its use. use of the 
The draw -knife is chiefly used in modelling and smoothing 
objects with curved outlines. It is also used in making 
hoops for barrels, &c. Directions for its use are given in 
Chap. V. 

v.— Chisels, Gouges, Carving" Tools, &e. 

These terms include a whole group of tools which are used 
in wood-slojd for the removal of small pieces of wood, in 
cases where the knife, the saw, or the plane could not advan- 
tageously be used. 

They consist of a flat or concave blade made of steel, the pmu of a 
cutting end of which is cut straight across and sharpened to ^'"*^^' '^'^' 



90 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



an edge, and the other wrought into a four-sided tang, which 
is set into a wooden handle. The tool in working is driven 
into the wood either by the pressure of the hand, or by 
blows from a mallet. In order that the handle may not slip, 
or twist round when grasped, it is generally made with four 
sides, greater in breadth than in thickness, and with the 
broader sides rounded.* To keep the handle from splitting 
under violent pressure, the base of the 
tanof is furnished with a shoulder, on 
which the handle rests. 

These tools vary greatly in size both as 
regards length and breadth. The latter 
dimension determines the dimensions of 
the edge. The broadest tools are gener- 
ally also the longest. 

In order to be able to execute all the 
different kinds of exercises which occur, 
it is necessary to have a complete set of 
each description of tools. There are 
usually 12 in a set, all of different breadths. 
Tools of this kind are classified accord- 
ing to the different shapes of the blade 
and edge, and the different methods of 
sharpening as follows : — 




Fig. 49. Firmer Chisel I 

A. Blade and handle. 

B. Blade showing a face 

and edge. 

C. Blade, c. shoulder, d. 

tang. 



1. Chisels. 



These tools have a straight edge ground on one side. 

1. The Firmep Chisel (Fig. 49). The breadth of the blade, 
which varies from IJ inches to \ inch, is generally much 
greater than its thickness. The face of the edge in all such 
tools forms with the front side an ano^le of 20^ to 25°. 

The firmer chisel is used in paring plane or convex surfaces; 
in mortising, when it often does duty instead of the mortise 
* English handles are generally turned in boxwood or beech.— Trs. 



TOOLS. 



91 



chisel ; in curved work ; in facing off ; and, generally speak- 
ing, in all cases where no other tool can be made use of with 
advantaofe. 

2. The Mortise-chisel (Fig. 50). The thickness of the 
blade generally exceeds its breadth, which varies from |- inch 
to 1 inch. The front face of the blade is always a little 
broader than the back. 

The mortise -chisel is used for mortising; and, whenever 
possible, a blade of the same breadth as the mortise to be 
made should be selected. The great thickness of the tool 
enables its sides to act with 
steady force upon the sides 
of the mortise, and makes 
accurate execution of the 
operation much easier. It 
is driven into the wood by 
blows from a mallet. The 
angle of the edge is the 
same as in the firmer chisel. 

2. G-ouges. 

These tools have a 
curved edge. 

The blade of the gouge is 
concave. The face of the 
edge may either be (a) 
ground from within out- 
wards, in which case the 
edge will lie upon the inner 
or concave side, or (h) in 
the reverse way, when the 

edge will lie upon the outer Fig 50. Mortise-chisel, i 
or convex side. ^- ^^7' ^^'^^"^ ^"^^ 

angle of the edge. 

Gouges ground in the 
first mentioned manner are used in the formi.tion of grooves 
or bowl-shaped depressions. Those ground in the other way 




Fig. 51. Gouge i, 

A. with edge on 
the inner side. 

B. -with edge on 
the outer side. 



HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 



are used chiefly in perpendicular paring to produce concave 
and cylindrical surfaces. 

The brfeadth of the gouge varies from J inch to IJ inches, 
and the curve of the edge may include from one-tenth to one- 
half of a circle, or 36° to 180''. All the gouges in one set 
should have the same curve in the edge. The gouge is driven 
into the wood by the hand, or in the case of gouges of large 
size, by the mallet. 

3. The Spoon Goug"© and the Spoon Iron. 

Ordinary gouges are often used in forming the bowls of 
spoons and similar articles, but the tools specially adapted, 
and best for the purpose, are the spoon gouge and spoon iron. 
The larger illustration (Fig. 52) shows the spoon gouge. In 
construction, and in the way it is used, it somewhat resembles 
A (Fig. 51); but it differs from it in having the blade curved 
lengthwise, to facilitate the work of hollowing out. 

The spoon iron is 
different in form. 
It is shown in the 
smaller illustration 
(Fig. 52), and re- 
sembles a knife 
Fig. 52. Spoon Gouge and Spoon Iron. \. with a lancet- 

shaped blade, with two edges, curved like a bow, and taper- 
ing to a point at the end. It is worked with both hands, and 
cuts to either side. 

4. Carving Tools. 

A number of tools, more or less like the preceding, are used 
in wood-carving. Some of these carving tools are flat, with 
rectangular edges; others are oblique to the direction of their 
length, with a bevelled edge on both sides; others are concave, 
with a circular edge, or have two edges meeting in a point. 
They are straight in some cases ; in others, curved. 

As only a few of these tools are used in slojd carpentry, to 




TOOLS. 



93 



any extent worth mentioning, no descriiJtion of them is given; 
but those in most common use, with their names, are shown 
in Fio-. 53. The full size of the edge is given in the outline 
beside the representation of each tool. 




Firmer. 



Corner firmer. 



straight gouge 



Straight gouge. 



Curved gouge. 



Front bent gouge. 

straight parting tool. 
Bent parting tool. 

Bent chisel. 
Parting gouge. 



Fig. 53. Carving Tools. J. 

VI. Planes. 

The edo-e tools hitherto described consist of a single steel 
blade, with a cutting edge of various descriptions, and a 
handle for one or both hands. The inclination of the edge 
to the surface of the wood may thus be altered at will, as the 
circumstances of the case require. Narrow surfaces, or sur- 
faces of generally circumscribed area, may thus be levelled 
and smoothed to a certain extent (though not perfectly) by 
the knife, the axe, the chisel, etc. ; but when long and broad 
surfaces have to be made absolutely smooth, we require an 



94 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

edge-tool which, by attacking in the first place all the eleva- 
tions, and by always cutting equally deep on a plane surface 
(i.e., by always removing shavings of the same thickness), 
finally reduces the surface to one uniform level. 

The plane is the tool which fulfils these requirements. 
In the plane, the steel blade called the plane-iron is wedged 
tightly into a parallelopiped-shaped wooden block, called the 
plane stock, which is formed in various ways for various 
purposes. The edge of the blade extends slightly beyond the 
under side of the block. 

The plane is used not only in the dressing of plane surfaces, 
but also in the preparation of all surfaces on which straight 
lines can be drawn in at least one direction ; e.g., in smoothing 
the surface of cylindrical and conical objects, etc. Con- 
sequently, many different kinds of planes are required. 
The pia7ie- All planes, however, consist of two principal parts : the 
sole or stock, and the iron. The stock is formed of hard, 
tough, straight-fibred wood in the form of a parallelopiped, 
the under side of which, the sole, glides over the work when 
the tool is used. The best wood is elm, beech, pear, or box- 
wood, which has been well seasoned to prevent warping. 
The plane is worked with both hands. The front part of 
Swedish planes is often provided with a rest for the hand, 
called the horn. The larger kind of planes have a handle 
behind the iron. 

The viane- The plaue-irou is placed obliquely in a hole in the stoclc, 
called the socket (Figs. 54 and 56), with its edge extending a 
very little beyond the sole, and it is secured by a wooden 
wedge. It is made of iron, with a steel front. In shape it 
resembles a wedge, the thicker end of which is sharpened. 
The wedge-like shape gives the required thickness and 
strength to the sharpened end, leaves more room towards the 
upper end, and also helps to keep the plane-iron firmly in its 
place when the edge comes against hard knots in the wood 
and the pressure tends to force the iron upwards. 



'iron 



TOOLS. 



95 



To form the edge, the plane-iron is ground on the posterior ^ngie of the 
or bevelled edge. This forms an an^le of from 20° to 25° 'ff,'^'' 

o c' , plane-iron 

with the front face of the plane-iron. The former angle is andUsposi- 
suitable for loose fibred timber ; the latter for hard or knotty tioninthe 

• -1 -1 SZOCfCm 

wood. The edge must not be too thin, for if so, the iron will 
fly, i.e., become jagged. The iron is generally placed in the 
socket at an angle of 45° to the plane of the sole, with the 
bevelled edge downwards. 

It occasionally happens, e.g., in small American planes with 
iron stocks, that the bevelled edge of the plane-iron is turned 
upwards at an angle of 25° to the plane of the sole. It may 
also be mentioned, in passing, that in planes manufactured for 
special purposes, e.g., planing particularly hard kinds of wood, 
the irons are placed at an angle of 50°, 55°, 60°, or even 90°. 

As indicated above, the plane acts by removing thicker or 
thinner shavings, according as the plane-iron extends more 
or less beyond the sole. In working with the knife it is 
always possible to alter the position of the edge in order to 
prevent its cutting in the same direction as the fibres run, 
which would tear them, and render the surface uneven. But 
it is not always possible to guide the stationary plane-iron 
in this way. Hence in cross-grained wood, or in timber 
where the fibres lie parallel with the surface, the plane has a 
tendency to split or tear them, and the resistance ofiered by 
the torn fibres is often so great that the plane cannot be 
driven forward. The fibres also, by their elasticity, tend to 
drag the iron downwards. To prevent the fibres tearing in 
front of the iron, provision must be made (1) for breaking 
them off at once, and (2) for bringing at the same time pres- 
sure to hear on theon from above, just over the edge of the 
iron, by means of which their elasticity may be diminished 
or wholly neutralised. The^7^s^ object is attained by placing 
a cover above the iron, the efiect of which is to break off the The cover. 
fibres as quiclily as they are detached; the second, by re- 
ducing the set or opening in front of the iron as much as is 
compatible with the free passage of the shavings through it. 



96 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



2'o put on 
the cover. 



The wedge 
and the 
socket. 




Fig. 54. Trying Plane. J, 
A stock, B handle, G socket, Z> D cheeks, E wedge, F cover, G iron, H boss. 

A rectangular opening in the iron, enlarged and rounded 
at one end, admits the screw of the cover, and permits of its 

adjustment. The lower end of the 
cover is curved, with the concave side 
inwards, and it terminates in a sharp 
edge. When the screw is tightened 
this sharp edge must lie close against 
the surface of the iron (see Fig. 55). 
If the slightest space is left the shav- 
ings will force their way through. 
The other side of the cover must be 
carefully rounded to permit the shav- 
ings to glide freely over it. The edge 
of the cover should be very near the 
edge of the iron. In finishing up a 
surface, and plain jointing, the dis- 
tance should be about ^^ i^^ch, and about double that distance 
in cases where coarser shavings may be removed. The dis- 
tance between the socket and the edge of the plane in front 
should be about -^ inch for fine planing, and not more than 
j6- inch for coarser work. 

In planes like the smoothing-plane and the trying-plane, 
where the iron is narrower than the sole, and is inserted in 
the socket from above, the front side of the socket should be 
at right angles with the plane of the sole, and of the same 




Fig. 55. Plane Iron. 
A seen from the front \^ 
B seen from the side \, 
a iron, h cover. 



TOOLS. 



97 




breadth as the iron. The inclination of the side of the socket 
on which the iron rests has been already indicated ; the other 
two sides, i.e., the cheeks, are thicker towards the iron, in order 
to give support and steadiness to the wedge, and the sides of 
the wedge are inclined towards one another at an angle of 
about 8°. If this angle is much greater the wedge fits 
loosely ; if it is less it may fit so tightly that it cannot with- 
out difficulty be loosened. The wedge, which is forked at 
the lower end, 
must fit accur- 
ately into the 
space in the 
socket left by the 
iron, otherwise 
shavings may 
gather round its 
points (see Fig. 
56). These points 
require frequent- 
ly to be trimmed, 
because from re- 
peated sharpen- 
ing the wedge- 
shaped plane- 
iron gradually 
sinks deeper in 
the socket, caus- 
ing the wedge to do the same. 

Should the sole of the plane become warped, or uneven naning the 
through wear, it must be carefully planed. It follows from soiecmdin. 
the construction of the socket that the opening m front ot tne piece 1/ 
iron, after repeated planing, becomes too large. It is usual "'°^^- 
to remedy this by inserting in front of the iron a piece of 
very hard wood, e.g., ebony, beech, or boxwood (see Fig. 56). 
Brass is also used for this purpose. New planes are also 

G 




^ d 



Fig. 56. Portion of Plane. Socket, i. 

F section through c d showino; plane iron, wedge and 

piece of wood inserted. 



98 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

often furnished with such pieces, in order that the portion in 
front of the plane-iron's edge may longer resist the wearing 
effect of the shavings. 

Putting in the Plane-Iron or Setting* the Plane. 

The cover is screwed tightly on the iron, with its sharp 
edge at the proper distance from the edge of the iron, which 
is then laid in the socket, just deep enough to allow its edge 
to lie in the same plane as the surface of the sole. The 
wedge is then put in, and secured by a couple of light blows 
from the hammer. The plane is then taken in the left hand, 
with the thumb resting on the wedge in the socket. The 
sole is turned upwards, and the iron is carefully driven in a 
little more, so that its edge shows just as much beyond the 
plane of the sole as the occasion requires. If it seems crooked, 
i.e., if one corner seems lower than the other, this must be 
rectified by light taps on its free edges. When its position 
appears to be right, the iron is secured by driving the wedge 
in more firmly. If, after this, the iron is found to be too low, 
it may be made to recede by a blow on the back part of the 
stock, or, in the case of the trying-plane, by a blow on the 
boss, a piece of hard wood or metal inserted in front of the 
socket (see H, Fig. 54). [This boss is not always found in 
English planes. It is useful in slojd as indicating the place 
to which the blow should be directed, and thus saving the 
stock of the plane from injury. — Trs.] The loosened wedge 
is then fastened once more, and the position of the iron is 
tested by the thickness of the shavings it removes, and raised 
or lowered, if necessary, according to the above directions. 
When the iron is removed, the plane is held in the way 
indicated above. 

1. Planes with Plat Soles for the dressing" of plane 

surfaces. 

1. The jack-plane (Fig. 57). To give certainty and ease in 
working, the front portion of the stock of a Swedish jack- 
plane is furnished with a horn for the hand, and a metal 



TOOLS. 



99 



Length of 
the jack- 
j^lane. 





support of American invention is sometimes placed behind- 
the iron to prevent the other hand from coming in contact 
with its sharp edges. The iron is single, i.e., it has no cover, 
and the edge is curved, not square. The Swedish jack-plane 
is 9 J inches long. [The English jack-plane is 16 inches 
long. — Tes.] 

The jack- 
plane is used 
on rough un- 
planed sur- 
faces as a pre- 
paration for a 
finer plane, 
when the ob- 
ject in view is 
more to re- 
move thick r,. rn T 7 1 T 
. Fig. 57. Jack-plane. J. 

SnavmgS ra- ^ horn, B support for hand, C single iron. 

pidly by an iron which cuts deep, than to produce a smooth 
surface. As the iron is single, and the opening in front of it 
tolerably wide, the jack-plane has a tendency to tear up the 
wood ; and it is therefore not advisable to use this tool very 
near the surface which is ultimately to be produced. 

2. The trying-plane is the largest and most indispensable 
of all the planes in use. That it may be wielded steadily it 
is provided with a handle for one hand. The iron is double, 
i.e., provided with a cover. Its various parts and their con- 
struction are fully described in connection with Fig. 54, and 
the method of using it is described in Chap. V. 

It is employed in shooting, i.e., in producing level surfaces use of the 
of all kinds, and it is sometimes used in preparatory work ^''2/i«^p^«"« 
instead of the jack-plane, in which case the iron should be 
set rather deeper than for shooting. When the trying-plane 
is used instead of the jack-plane, the space between the socket 
and the edge of the iron in front should be wider than 
in the later stages of planing. 



100 



HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 



Grinding 
the plane- 



Length of 
the trying 
'•plane. 



Use of the 
smoothing 
■plane. 



In all planes used for shooting, the surface of the sole must 
lie altogether in the same plane ; and the edge of the plane- 
iron must be ground quite straight, and at right angles with 
the middle line of the iron. As, however, the corners of a 
perfectly straight-edge are apt to tear up the fibres by the 
side of the iron, or at least to leave a mark on the wood, they 
should be very slightly rounded. The sole is sometimes 
rubbed with raw linseed oil, that it may glide more smoothly 
over the wood. 

The trying-plane should always be worked in the direction 
of its length, not obliquely to it, as is often improperly done. 

The trying-plane should be about 20 inches long. [The 
English trying-plane is 22 inches long. — Trs.] 

3. The smoothing'-plane (Fig. 58) resembles the jack- 
plane, but is broader, and has a double iron. 

The smoothing- 
plane is used after 
the trying-plane to 
produce a very 
smooth polished sur- 
face. As the shav- 
ings it removes must 
be extremely fine, the 
edge of the cover is 
Fig. 58. Smoothing-plane. I. placed very close to 

the edge of the iron, or, as it is called, is " set fine in front." 
The smoothing plane should be about 9 J inches long. [The 

English smoothing-plane 
is 7|- inches long. — Trs.] 
The smoothing-plane and 
planes like it may be fur- 
nished with a support for 
the hand, behind the iron, 
like the jack-plane. 





Fig. 59, 



Iron planes 



Iron Smoothing-plane (American 
pattern). |. 

As mentioned above, the stocks of planes are sometimes 



TOOLS. 



101 




made of iron. Planes of this kind are used in England, and 
to a still greater extent in America. The plane-iron is ad- 
justed by means of a screw. Small iron smoothing-planes 
are very useful for children, whose hands are not large enough 
to hold planes of the ordinary size. A plane of this pattern 
is shown in Fig. 59. 

4. The rebate-plane (Fig. 
60). When the adjacent sur- 
faces of a rebate have to be 
planed, the ordinary smoothing- 
plane does not answer because 
the iron is narrower than the 
sole. In the rebate-plane the 

edge of the iron is as broad as Fig. 60. Rebate-plane, i. 
the sole, sometimes even a little broader. The upper part of 
the iron is much narrower, and it is wedged into a mortise 
in the stock. The iron is single, and the shavings escape 
through an opening above its edge. 

2. Planes for the Dressing of Curved Surfaces. 
1. The round. — This plane is used for hollow grooved 
surfaces. It resembles the smoothing-plane and the jack- 
plane, but differs from them in the more or less convex sole, — 
the degree of convexity depending on the degree of concavity 
it is desired to pro- 
duce. The iron 
may be single or 
double, and the 
edge is rounded 
to correspond with 
the sole. An ordi- 
nary jack-plane 
may easily be con- 
verted into a 
round, by round- 
ino" the sole and the edge of the iron. In working the round 




Fig. 61. Round, i. 
P seen from behind. 



102 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



it must always b'e driven forward in a line with its length. 
In consequence of the shape of the tool, any other method 
would destroy the surface required. 

[2. The hollow, another plane of this kind, has the sole 
concave, and an iron to correspond. It is used in planing 
round surfaces. — Trs.] 

3. The compass plane. — In this plane the sole is curved 
lengthwise, and the iron is an ordinary double one with a 
straight edge. It is used in planing hollow curved surfaces. 
Soles of different degrees of curvature are required, according 
to the radii of the surface to be planed, but it is not necessary 
that the two should accurately correspond. The curvature 

of the sole must not be less 
than the curvature of the 
surface of the work, but it 
maybe greater. The differ- 
ence, however, if any, must 
be slight, because the two 
opposing surfaces must 
correspond closely enough 
to permit of the steady 
Fig. 6^. Compass Plane, h guidance of the tool. One 

compass-plane, therefore, will not suffice for surfaces of 
greatly varying curvature. 

American compass-planes of iron, called adjustable planes, 
have flexible steel soles, which can be adapted to surfaces of 
different degrees of curvature. One plane of this kind is 
therefore enough. 




3. The Old Woman's Tooth-Plane, and Dove-tail Filletster. 

The old woman's tooth-plane is quite unlike the planes 
hitherto described. It consists of a block of wood on the inner 
side of which is fastened an iron, secured by a thumb-screw 
(Fig. 63). The construction of some planes of this kind is 
much simpler ; they consist merely of a parallelopiped piece 



TOOLS. 



103 



of wood, in the middle of which is wedged a straight or curved 
iron. In this case the blade of a firmer chisel is often used. 





Fig. 63. Old Woman's Tooth-Plane, seen from above and from the side, i- 
The dove-tail filletster is like the rebate plane, but difiers 
from it in having the plane of the sole oblique to the sides of 
the stock, instead 
of at right angles 
to them, and also 
in having a rebate 
either in a piece 
with the sole, or 
attached to it for 
the purpose of 
guiding the plane 





Fig. 64. Dove-tail Filletster, seen from the side 
and from behind, i. 



along- the line of the dove-tail rebate to be formed. 

In the simple kind of filletster shown in Fig. 64, the rebate 
is fixed, but in the more complicated kind (Fig. 65), the 
rebate is adjustable to suit deeper or shallower work ; the 
latter is also provided with a " cutter" which determines the 
line within which the surface is to be planed. This line, in 
other cases, must 
first be gauged 
with a cutting 
ofauo-e; otherwise 
the plane will 
tear the fibres on 
that side and 
make it uneven. -Fig. 65. Dove-tail Filletster. 







i 

;>-!•- 



104 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

Both these planes are used in making dove-tail rebates ; 
the old woman's tooth in smoothing and levelling the bottom 
of the groove into which the dove-tail is shot, and the 
filletster in working the dove-tail. 

4. The Plough. 

When a rectangular groove is made in a piece of wood the 
plough is used (see Plate X.) The breadth of the iron must 
not exceed the breadth of the groove to be made, and the 
sole consists of an iron splint set into the stock. The plough 
is furnished with a directing gauge, adjustable by bolts and 
wedges or screws. From 6 to 12 irons of different breadths 
accompany each plane. 

5. The Iron Spokeshave. 

The spokeshave may be included in the same class as the 
plane. It is made entirely of iron, with two handles, and is 
worked with both hands. The sole is very short — shorter 
than the breadth of the iron — and this renders the tool very 
useful in forming narrow convex or concave surfaces. 

The iron is se- 
cured by a screw 
and a fixing plate. 
The latter also 
does duty as a 
Fig. 66. Spokeshave. I cover, and makes 

the tool more serviceable (see Fig. 66). 

The spokeshave is a simple, practical, and easily-managed 
tool. It is made in several sizes, and the iron may have a 
straight edge, or one which curves outwards. The former is 
more common. 

[The spokeshave described above is an American pattern. 
English spokeshaves are made of wood, and are recommended. 
— Trs.] 




TOOLS. 



105 



VII. Files. 

The files used in wood-slojd are the same as those used in 
metal work. The file plays, however, a much less important 
part in the former than in the latter. In wood-slojd it is 
used chiefly to smooth curved surfaces, the interior of holes 
and depressions, and the ends of pieces of wood, in all cases 
where edge-tools cannot be used advantageously. 

The file consists of a piece of steel, the shape of which may 
vary, and on the surface of which sharp ridges have been cut 
with a chisel. These ridges are equidistant the one from the 
other, and oblique to the length of the file. They form the 
file-grade (Fig. 67) — the essential characteristic of the tool. ^^' fi^^- 

A single-cut file is cut in one y^ y^ ^ 
direction only ; in a double-cut file 
the cuts cross one another. Both 

cuts incline towards the point of Fig. 67. File-grade, f, 
the tool, the result of which is that the file acts chiefly when 
driven forward, and has little effect when drawn back. The 
files used in wood-slojd have usually a tapering point. All 
files terminate at the other end in a tang which slots into 
the handle. 








Fig. 68. FUes. I. 

a flat file, & half-round file, c round file. 

Files are called triangular, square, flat, round, half-round, 
etc., according to the form of the blade in cross-section. Flat 



106 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

round, and half-round files are most used in wood-slojd 
(Fig. 68), The triangular file is used for sharpening saws 
(Fig. 36). 

The fineness of the file depends on the number of cuts per 
inch. They are usually classified as coarse, mediuTYi, fine, 
and very fine. 

Medium files, about 12 inches long, are the most useful for 
working in wood, but coarse files, or rasps, may be used in 
the first stages of work. 
Method of When in use, the file is grasped by the handle by one hand, 
imng the ^^^ ^-^^ wrist or fiugers of the other are laid on the point to 
produce the required pressure. The file is passed steadily 
and slowly backwards and forwards over the work if the 
surface desired is level, and with a circular motion if it is 
curved. Pressure is exerted only when the file is driven 
forward ; when it is drawn back again it is allowed to glide 
over the surface. When the work cannot be made fast, the 
file must be worked with one hand ; but, whenever possible, 
the work should be secured to the bench, that both hands 
may be free to direct and steady the file. 
Cleaning the In filing rcsinous or unseasoned wood, the cuts of the file 
are apt to become clogged with sawdust. The file may be 
cleaned with a stiff steel brush, but the simplest method of 
cleaning a wood-file is to wash it in hot water. The same 
file should never be used for wood and metal. 

VIII. Methods of Finishing" Work. 

1. The Scraper. 

This tool consists of a highly-tempered piece of steel (Fig, 

69). The edges of the scraper are 

^^=^-. ,.:: ,- -.^._ Mi^^,^M generally straight, but sometimes the 
thelcmper. W ^ ^^^^ ^^^ rouuded or hollowed to suit 

I :^ .-- :.^^ concave or convex surf aces. The two 

longest parallel edges are ground at 
Fig. 69. Scraper, i. right angles to the sides. When the 



file. 



TOOLS. 107 

scraper is sharpened, it is placed at the edge of a plank, 
and a very hard piece of steel is drawn against its edge as 
nearly as possible on the plane of the plank. This, when 
repeated several times backwards and forwards, levels the 
sharp edge of the scraper, which is raised up again by having 
the steel once, steadily but not too heavily, passed along it. 
During this the steel is held almost perpendicular, with its 
upper end inclined very slightly towards the upper side of 
the plank. The raised edge of the scraper now forms a fine 
edge, which takes hold of the wood when drawn across its 
surface, and removes minute shavings. When it becomes 
blunt, it must be sharpened once more, and as its edge, after 
repeated sharpening, becomes uneven, it must finally be re- 
ground. A worn saw-file, the cut of which has been carefully 
ground ofi", and the edges slightly rounded, or a firmer chisel, 
may be used. 

The scraper should be held easily in the hand. In polish- Method of 
ing a plane surface, the tool should be taken in both hands, scraper. 
The scraper should incline towards the surface of the work 
(see Chap, v., page 136), and should be worked always in the 
direction towards which it leans, and with the grain of the 
wood, but somewhat obliquely to the direction of the fibres. 
Towards the end, pressure should be diminished, to produce a 
finer polish. Care must be taken lest the cutting edge 
become ragged from careless "setting," and scratch the 
surface. Should this be so, the scraper must be re-ground, 
and then sharpened. 

2. Sand-Paper. 

Sand-papef is made of paper with a coating of finely- sand-paper 
ground flint, glass, or quartz glued on to it. The grains on ^ndofgiLi 
the same paper are always of the same size, and, according to 
the finer or coarser quality, the paper is numbered from to 
rough 2. 

[Sand-paper made of flint is generally used in Sweden. 
In England, glass-paper is considered the best. — Trs.] 



108 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

When in use, the sand-paper should be torn off in pieces 
of convenient size, and a bit laid on the plane surface of a 
piece of cork or wood, |-inch thick, and of a good size to be 
held in the hands. If a sufl&ciently thick piece of cork can- 
not be obtained, a thin piece should be glued on a piece of 
wood, or, failing cork, a piece of card-board will answer the 
purpose. This serves the purpose of a soft ruhher (wood 
alone being too hard), and gives the necessary support to the 
sand-paper, which, used in this way, acts much in the same 
manner as the file, and may be considered to all intents and 

Sand-paper 

really a tool. purpOSeS aS a tool. 

Sand-paper may be used without a rubber only in the 
case of concave or convex surfaces, where there are no sharp 
edges. Care must be taken in finishing off not to work the 
paper in the direction of the fibres, but either at right angles 
or obliquely to it, in order to produce a smooth surface. Just 
at the last, the paper may be passed once or twice in the 
same line as the fibres, to remove any ridges or marks which 
may have been produced. For similar reasons, the paper last 
used should be finer than that first employed, in order to 
secure a perfectly smooth surface. 

Sand-paper should never he used to forTn or smooth up the 

surface of objects. The knife, the file, the smoothing-plane, 

Sand-paper the scrapcr, etc. are the proper tools for this purpose. Sand- 

us^^^ ^^ paper should be used only in finishing off, and when the use 

sparingly, of the smoothing-plauc is understood, it is not much needed 

for plane surfaces. In the case of objects with curved 

surfaces, on the other hand, it is almost indispensable. 

Finishing off with sand-paper should never be done in a 
thoughtless, mechanical way. To attain a satisfactory result 
the greatest attention is requisite. 

IX, Brace and Bits. 

Bits of different kinds are used in making round holes. 
Bits for wood are made of a special kind of steel, one end of 
which forms the cutting portion of the tool, and the other is 



TOOLS. 



109 



wedge-shaped, that it may be securely fastened into a handle 
or brace, by means of which it revolves. In working, the 
brace is always turned to the right, and the bits are made to 
cut in the same direction. The edge of the bit is designed to 
make its way into the wood without great pressure, and 
without risk of splitting it. The bit must work without 
hindrance from the shavings ; otherwise 
it will become hot from friction, and 
boring will be difficult. A good bit cuts 
like a knife, detaches smooth spiral 
shavings, and becomes only moderately 
warm, even when worked quickly. 

The brace may vary in construction. 
Fig. 70 shows a very strong Swedish 
brace made of iron. The upper end, or 
tang of the bit, forms a square truncated 
pyramid, which slots into a hole in the 
brace socket, and is fastened by a spring. 
Fig. 71 shows an American brace, also 
made of iron. It has a screw adjustable 
socket, into which the bit is secured. The 
tang of the bit may be of any form, pro- 
vided it is somewhat rectangular. 

Fig. 70. Swedish Brace, i. 




IIoui a bit 
should work. 




JFig. 71. American Brace ; section of screw adjustable socket, or bit holder, i. 



110 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



The bits in most general use are shell-hits and oentre-hits. 
Small shell-bits are called pin-bits. 





B CD 

Fig. 72. ^, Auger-bit. ^, Centre-bit. (7, Shell-bit oriPiii-bit. -D, Hole-rimer 
drill. E, Screwdriver bit. F and G^ Counter-sink drills, i. 

1. The shell-bit (Fig. 72, G) is gouge-shaped, with the end 
curved like the point of a spoon. Unlike the centre-bit, it 
has no middle point, and it is therefore more difficult to gauge 
to holes of any given size, especially if the latter are large. 

This bit is better than the centre-bit for boring end pieces. 
Shell-bits are made in various sizes, from those adapted for 
holes of re inch in diameter to those suitable for holes of 
1| inch in diameter. The smallest kind, the pin-bit, is most 
used in wood slojd. A set of pin-bits includes from 8 to 10, 
varying in size from | inch to J inch. 

2. The Centre-lbit. 

The ordi- -^ rpj^g Ordinary centre-bit (Fig. 72, B, and 73, B) has a flat 

hit. blade, the lower portion of which is broader than the upper, 

as is shown in the illustrations. In the middle of the lower 

edge is the centre-iooint a, and at one side is the cutter h. In 



TOOLS. 



Ill 




Fig. 73. A, Portion of Auger- 
bit. B, Portion of Centre-bit. 
aa Centre-point, bbb Cutter, ccc Lip. 



boring, the cutter makes a circular incision corresponding 
to the circumference of the hole, and thus determines its 
diameter, prevents the wood from splitting, and facilitates 
the removal of shavings and sawdust by the lip c, the edge 
of which is horizontal to the point 
and oblique to the blade, and which 
cuts at right angles to the cutter. 
The centre point is longer than the 
cutter, which again cuts deeper than 
the lip. In sharpening the centre- 
bit, which may be done with a small 
half-round file, care must be taken 
that the edge of the cutter is on the 
outer side, and the edge of the lip 
on the under side. A set of bits should contain 8 to 12 centre- 
bits, from I inch to 1 inch broad. 

2. The augeP (Fig. 72, A) belongs to the same class. In 
boring with the bits previously described, it is necessary to 
exercise a certain degree of pressure, but the auger works its ^^.^ *'" 
way into the wood by means of the conical screw which forms auger woru 
its centre point, and after the screw has once started all that 
is needed is to make it revolve. The auger is besides fur- 
nished with a cutter and a lip on both sides of the screw. 
(See Fig. 73, A,) 

Above the cutting portion it is spiral in form, and thus we 
liave a double spiral with sharp edges. This gives plenty of 
room for the sawdust and shavings which are worked out of 
the hole without the removal of the auger. The American 
augers are the best. A set includes 6 to 12 pieces, from Theiest 
■YE inch to 1 inch. auge^"- 




Fig. 71. — Expansion bit. 



112 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



Screwdriver 
bit, counter- 
sink drill, 
and hole- 
rimer. 



AdjustaUe The expansion bit (Fig. 74) is of American construction. 
orexpansion Within Certain limits it admits of holes of different sizes 
being bored with one and the same bit. Its point, lip, and 
cutter are tolerably like those of the auger, but it is furnished 
with two loose cutters, which may be screwed in to suit the 
diameter desired. The adjustable cutter does the work both of 
lip and cutter. The expansion bit makes holes with remark- 
ably even surfaces, and with two different sizes it is possible 
to bore holes varying in diameter from J inch to 3 inches. 

A screw-driver hit (Fig. 72, E), two or three counter-sink 
drills (Fig. 72, F and G), and a couple of square or hexagonal 
hole-rimers (Fig. 72, D) are usually included in 
a complete set of bits. The counter-sink drill 
is used to produce a conical hole in wood or 
metal, suitable for sinking screw-heads. The 
rimer enlarges holes in thin metal plates, e.g., 
screw holes in hinge-plates. 

3. The Bradawl (Fig. 75). This tool consists 
of a steel bit yV inch to ^ inch thick, and 2 inches 
long. Its point is like that of an awl, or it may be 
chisel-pointed. The bit is secured in the handle 
by a screw-socket. Several bits of different 
sizes belong to the tool, and the handle, which 
is hollow, serves as a case for them. The brad- 
awl is used to bore holes for sprigs, nails, etc. 
When holes are bored with the chisel-pointed 
bit, the edge is placed across the grain of the 
Fig. 75. Brad- wood, and pressure is exerted in this direction 
^* to prevent the splitting of the wood. 



X. The Mallet, the Hammer, the Hand Vice, Pincers, 

and Screwdriver. 

The Mallet (Fig. 76) is made of hard, strong wood, pre- 
ferably of figured beech. It is used for striking tools with 
wooden handles, because the hard hammer in such cases 



TOOLS. 



113 



would not only do damage, but would not serve the purpose 
so well. 



The Hammer (Fig. 77) con- 
sists of a piece of steel with a 
hole for the handle, called the 
eye. One end is cylindrical and 
terminates in a flat surface, 
called the face; the other end, 
which is called the "pane, is 
wedge-shaped, with a rounded 
edge. That the handle may be 
quite firm, the eye widens at the 
sides, and wedges driven hard 
into the end of the handle cause 

it to fill up the cavity entirely. Fig. 76. Mallet, i. Fig. 77. Ham- 
mer. I. 

There are various kinds of pineePS, but only those used 

in wood slojd need be named here. Pincers have two steel 

arms rivetted together. The rivet divides the arms into two 

unequal portions, 

the longer, or 

handles, and the 

shorter, ot jaws. 

The ordinary 
pincers have Fig. 78. Pincers. 





short, broad, sharply curved jaws, and are used to extract 
nails, etc. 

The wire-cutter resembles the preceding, but is slighter in 
make, and its 
arms are curved 
and its jaws 
sharper. It is 
used to snap off 
pieces of wire, tin- Fig. 79. Wire-cutter. ^. 

tacks, etc. The jaws of the flat pliers are flat on the inner 

H 




114 



HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 




Fig. 80. Elat-jawed Pliers, i. 




Fig. 81. Round-jawed Pliers. 



Shape of the 
screwdriver. 



side, which is file- 
cut to enable 
them to take fast 
hold of small 
pieces of metal to 
be filed, bent, &c. 

In the round 
pliers the jaws 
are more or less 
conical in shape, 
for the bending of 
\- wire, etc. 

The hand-viee is not so 
much employed in slojd- 
carpentry as in metal slojd. 
Its chief use is to secure 
small pieces of metal for 
filing. It may be held in 
the hand, or, after the piece 
of metal has been made 
fast, it may itself be screwed 
into a hand-screw or to the 
bench, that both hands may 
be free for the work of 
filing. 

The screwdriver is used for driving in screws, 
and is made of hard steel. At the end it is bev- 
elled to a thick point, which varies from -^^-inGh. 
to iV-i^ch in thickness, depending on the size of 
the screw for which it is to be used. 

The bevelled edges should be parallel, and the 
point should be as little as possible like a wedge 
in shape, but should lie flat in the slit of the nail> 
full sfzef selii Otherwise it will have a tendency to slip and 

from the side. l^g^Qme chippcd. 




Hand-vice. 



Fig. 83. 
Screwdriver. 



TOOLS. 115 

E. The GFinding" and Sharpening of Tools. 

Work must never he done with blunt or badly-set tools. 
Tools "inust always be kept sharp and in good order. 

These rules should ahuays be kept in mind. Many a 
slojder toils in the sweat of his brow with a blunt saw, or a 
badly set blunt plane, rather than take time to put his tool 
in order, though tools in good condition save hours of work, 
much unnecessary trouble, and needless vexation. Blunt 
tools demand more strength and exertion than sharp ones, 
and seldom, if ever, produce such good results. The rules 
given above are especially important in the case of children, 
for whom work ought not to be made unnecessarily difficult. 

The sharpening of edge-tools is performed on the grind- 
stone and the oilstone. The method of sharpening a saw has 
already been described (pp. SO, 81). 

The ordinary Grindstone consists of a circular slab of 
sandstone, which rotates on an axle, and is provided with a 
handle for turning. It is supported on a grindstone stand 
or bench. Below the stone is a wooden well, lined with zinc, 
partially filled with water, into which the stone is sunk 
about one inch when in use. The stone should not be too 
fine in the grain or too hard. 

The grindstone should never be used dry, because the steel care of the 
does not " catch " well unless the stone is wet, and the friction anndstone. 
on a dry stone " burns " the steel and makes the edge of the 
tool soft. Exposure to the sun for any length of time makes 
the stone too hard, while prolonged immersion of any portion 
of it in water renders that portion soft. Consequently it 
wears faster, and the stone becomes uneven or eccentric. 
The stone should therefore be kept dry except when in use. 

A frame-work attached to the stand prevents splashing 
when the stone rotates by directing the water down into the 
well, and splashing may still further be avoided by fastening 
a thick piece of stuff in front so that it trails upon the stone 



116 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



StraigJit 
edge. 



A ceurate 
grinding. 



and absorbs a portion of the surplus water. The stone must 
always be turned towards the worker and towards the edge 
of the tool, which must be moved steadily, and with equal 
pressure from side to side, across the whole breadth of the 
stone, to prevent the formation of scratches or depressions on 
its circumference. The bevelled edge produced by grinding 
must present either a flat or a concave surface to the convex 
surface of the stone. It must never be convex. The con- 
cave form of the bevelled edge is advantageous, because it 
materially lightens the final sharpening on the oilstone. 
The edge must also be quite straight unless a curved edge is 
actually required. 

As it is difficult, especially for the inexperienced, to hold 
the steel steadily enough against the stone, a grinding sup- 
port has been invented. Such a support of American make 
is shown in Fig. 84. It consists of an iron frame into which 
the plane-iron or the chisel is screwed. A small wheel below 




Fig. 84. Grinding support. 3. 

the frame revolves upon the grindstone, and the desired angle 
on the edge of the tool is obtained by fastening it in with 
the edge at a shorter or longer distance from the frame. By 
means of this simple contrivance even an inexpert pupil is 
able to grind a plane-iron correctly. 

A very common fault in grinding is to make the angle 
which the bevelled edge makes with the face of the tool too 



TOOLS. 



117 




Fiff. 85. Oilstone and case, h 



great, i.e., to make the edge too thick. This is often done 
by beginners in their haste to be relieved from grinding. 

The tool must be ground till a raw edge appears, i.e., the me raw 
very thin " film " or hair produced by the grindstone's remov- ''^^^• 
ing the very edge of the steel. This, in its turn, is removed 
by the oilstone. 

Sharpening with the oilstone is necessary, because the edge 
produced by the coarse-grained grindstone is neither fine 
enoug-h nor even enous"h for immediate use. 

The oilstone is a 
slab of specially fine- 
grained stone. "Wash- 
ita" and "Arkansas" 
stones from America, The best 

1 ce rr\ ^ " x oilstones. 

and "Turkey stones 
are the best. [Welsh 
oilstones are less expensive, and can thoroughly be recom- 
mended. — Tes.] The oilstone should be 8 inches long and 2 J 
inches broad, and it should be kept in a wooden box with a 
cover (Fig. 85). A good oilstone is very hard and close- 
grained, and it " takes well," i.e., it acts almost like a very 
fine file on the steel. The colour is yellowish- white. They 
last a long time, but are expensive to buy. 

When in use, the oilstone should be moistened with veget- 
able oil. The addition of a little parafiin is an improvement. Method of 
The tool is held in both hands, and the bevelled edge is applied "f ;^ ^^^ 

' & X jr oilstone. 

closely to the stone in such a way that, while the bevel is 
altogether in contact with the stone, the edge presses rather 
more heavily on it, and this angle of inclination must be 
steadily maintained to prevent the edge from becoming 
rounded. The steel is now drawn over the stone with a slow, 
steady, backward and forward motion. When this has been 
repeated often enough, it is turned over and passed once over 
the stone with the face flat. The worker must not confine 
his operations to the middle of the stone, but must use the 
whole of the surface. 



edge. 



118 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 

An oilstone slip, i.e., a piece of the same kind of stone as 
the oilstone, but smaller and thinner, and rounded at the 
edges, is required for the sharpening of gouges, spoon-irons, etc. 
A sharp Sharpening must be continued until the edge itself is not 

visible when held up against the light, or until it no longer 
appears white and rounded. Its sharpness is tested by touch 
ing it lightly with the finger. 

F- The Tool Cupboard. 

For the benefit of those who wish to procure a tool cup- 
board, complete drawings of one are given in Plate XL It 
is so arranged that every tool has a fixed, easily observed 
place, in order that the absence of any may be readily dis- 
covered when the tools are laid past. Tools must further be 
so arranged that when one is taken out another is not dis- 
placed ; and all sharp edges must be protected. 

Any alterations in the size of the cupboard, required by a 
larger or smaller stock of tools, could easily be made. 



119 



CHAPTER TV. 

JOINTING. 

Different parts of articles are connected or jointed partly 
by glue, nails, or screws, and partly by the special adaption 
of the parts themselves, as in mortising and dove-tailing. 

A. Glueing. 

The simplest way of jointing two pieces of wood is to 
introduce between them a connecting medium in liquid form, 
i.e., glue. 

Glue is made from the refuse, clippings, etc., of tanneries 
and glove manufactories. After being subjected to a boiling 
process, these materials are reduced to a viscous fluid, which 
solidifies on cooling into a stiflSsh jelly, which is then cut 
into thin slices and dried upon nets stretched on frames. 

Good glue is known by its light brown or brownish yellow 
colour; its sparkling transparency; its hardness and elas- 
ticity ; by the way it breaks ofl" in flakes and whitens in the 
line of fracture ; and by its power of resistance to the damp- 
ness of the air. It swells if steeped in cold water, but does 
not melt even after one or two days' immersion. The ulti- 
mate test of good glue is, however, its cementing power. 

1. The Preparation of Glue- 

The cakes of glue, either entire or in pieces, are first 
soaked in cold water. After the glue swells it is put in a 
glue-pot (Fig. 86) and melted by heat. The glue-pot consists 
of two pans usually made of cast-iron or tin-plate. The 
larger of these, the outside pan, is, when in use, half filled 



120 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



with water, and the smaller one, the inside jpan or glue-pot 
proper, in which the glue is placed, rests upon a rim or flange 
round its mouth. This inner pan should always be lined 
with tin. The water in the outer pan prevents the glue from 
burning, (an accident which must always be carefully 
avoided), and as the contents of the glue-pot are surrounded 
by warm water, they may be kept fluid and fit for use a con- 
siderable time after the pan has been removed from the fire. 

If glue is wanted in a hurry, the cakes may be put in a 
towel or a similar piece of stuff to keep the glue from being 
scattered about, and broken to pieces with a hammer. The 
pieces are then put into the glue-pot and stirred during boil- 
ing, to prevent unmelted glue sticking to the bottom. This 
mode of preparation is quite as good as the preceding. 




Fig. 86. Glue Pot Outside Pan. i. 

(inside pan) and Brush. 

GJue is applied with a strong brush, of which there should 
be two sizes, one for large surfaces and one for small sur- 
faces, e.g., mortise holes, etc. 

Liquid Glue. — The addition of acetic acid to melted glue 
prevents putrefaction, and, without lessening its cementing 
power, keeps it liquid at ordinary temperatures. " Liquid 
glue " may be made as follows : — Four parts of good glue are 
melted in four parts diluted acetic acid, in the outer pan, or 



JOINTING. 121 

on the top of an oven. One part spirits of wine and a small 
quantity of alum are then added, and the mixture is kept in 
a wide-mouthed bottle, the cork of which has a hole to admit 
the brush. 

This glue remains liquid at + 14° to 18° C, and does not 
solidify until + 8° to 12° C. ; it is very convenient for small 
articles, as it is always ready and in good condition, and its 
cementing power is quite equal to that of glue prepared in 
the ordinary way. Its only drawback is that it dries more 
slowly. 

In the case of articles exposed to moisture, the addition of 
10 per cent, of boiled linseed oil is advantageous. The glue 
to which it is added should be hot and strong, and should be 
stirred till the varnish has been thoroughly mixed. The 
wood to which this wood-cement is applied should be dry and 
warm, and the pieces should be firmly pressed together until 
the glue dries. 

2.. Glueing"* 

The process of glueing is very simple, but it must be care- 
fully performed to ensure a strong inconspicuous joint. The 
general rule holds good that the layer of glue shall be so 
thin that the seam can hardly be seen, and this presupposes 
that the pieces fit accurately (see page 146), that they are 
kept in sufficiently close contact while the glue is drying, 
and that the glue itself does not cool before they are put 
properly together. 

To keep the glue from cooling, the wood should be warmed Warming 
as well as the glue, and the operations of applying the latter, *^^ '^°° ' 
putting the pieces together and applying the required pressure, 
must be rapidly performed. Generally speaking, it is suffi- 
cient if one of the wooden surfaces is warmed : thus in dove- 
tailing and slotting the pins only are warmed ; in blocking, 
the blocks only, etc. 

The glue, which must be neither too thick nor too thin, is Laying on 
laid evenly and quickly, in as small a quantity as possible, ^^^^siue. 
over the surface of the wood with the brush. 



122 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 

In the case of pins for mortising, the glue should be thicker 
than for jointing boards, and the glue is generally applied to 
the hole as well as to the previously warmed pin, though 
sometimes only to the latter. 

Screwing together is performed either in the bench, which 
is the simplest method, or in hand-screws, or in a press with 
wedges. The article must remain under pressure till the 
glue dries. If the glue is too thick or the wood cold, or if 
the glue cools before screwing up, the joint will show, and 
will not be good. A joint of this kind does not look well, 
and is less durable than one properly glued together. 

The bench pegs or the hand-screw should always be in 
order before glueing, to save time. Just before the final 
tightening of the screw, the work should be carefully ex- 
amined to see if the parts are in their right places. If not 
they must be made to fit. If the staves of a barrel are not 
in the same plane, the screw must not be loosened, but the 
stave which is not flush must be hammered into place, and 
the screws tightened. The work must not again be disturbed 
till the glue has hardened. 

In screwing up finished pieces of work, bits of wood must 
always be put between the work and the bench-pegs or the 
point of the screw, to prevent marks. When large plane 
surfaces are glued together, it is necessary to use several 
cramps to obtain strong enough pressure. 
Removal of The gluc which exudes from the joints of objects which 
aZe "^ are finished ofl" before glueing, e.g., the inside of a drawer, 
must be carefully wiped ofi" with a clean sponge or rag dipped 
in warm water immediately after glueing together, before it 
completely dries. Care must be taken not to wet the wood 
unnecessarily. 

The better the glue penetrates the pores of the wood, the 
stronger the joint. Consequently, glue holds better in loose- 
fibred than in close-grained wood, which presents a hard, 
smooth surface. Broad surfaces of the latter description are 
roughened a little before glueing, by drawing a coarse file 



JOINTING. 123 

over them.* Glue which dries slowly is stronger than that 
which dries quickly. 

A well-fitting joint made with good glue is so strong that, strong and 
when long boards are loined toajether, the wood itself gener- '^^^^^^"^ 

o V o ' o joints. 

ally gives way before the joint. This, however, is not the 
case when end pieces are joined together, or when the wood 
is very hard or close-grained. 

Two pieces of wood may be glued together without cramp- 
ing or screwing together, e.g., a block of wood on a plank. 
The block only is warmed, but glue is laid upon both. The 
former is then pressed upon the latter, and rubbed backwards 
and forwards to get rid of the superfluous glue, until it be- 
gins to adhere. Care must now be taken that it is in its 
right place, and is not further disturbed. The two pieces 
adhere by atmospheric pressure. 

B. Nailing. 

Sprigs of different lengths and thicknesses are generally 
used for nailing together slojd-work, but for large or heavy 
articles cut or heat nails are employed, because their uneven 
surface is more tenacious, and thus gives greater strength to 
the joint. Before the nail is hammered in, a hole should be 
bored with the pin-bit or the bradawl to prevent splitting. 
The diameter of this hole should not exceed two-thirds of 
that of the thickest part of the nail, and the nail should be hit 
straight on the head, to prevent it from bending or going in 
crooked. 

The firm hold of the nail in the wood depends partly on The strength 
the more or less rough nature of its surface, partly on its ^ "*^ '^°^^ ' 
length and thickness, partly on the kind of wood, and partly 
on the direction of the nail in relation to the fibres, i.-e., 
whether it is driven into a long board or into an end piece. 
The strongest joint is made with beat nails in a cross piece ; 

* There is a special tool for this purpose used in veneering, &c., called the 
" toothing -plane '^ — Trs. 



124 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

the weakest with beat sprigs in an end piece. The pre- 
liminary boring does not affect the hold of the nail in the 
wood unless it is too deep or too wide. A hole half the 
depth and half the diameter of the thickest part of the nail 
exercises no noticeable influence on the strength of the joint. 
sinTcing the Somctimes it is necessary to sink the nail under the plane 

head of a , *- ■'- 

nail. of the surface, that it may not present any obstacle to 

smoothing up or finishing off the work. After the nail has 
been hammered in by the ordinary method, a small steel 
"punch about 4 inches long and \ inch thick, tapering to a 
thick point rather less in diameter than the head of the 
nail, is used to sink it. The ^unch is placed on the head of 
the nail, and hammered till the head sinks to the depth re- 
quired. 

Wooden pins are sometimes used for jointing. They are 
made of straight, split wood, and have four sides, often with 
bevelled corners, tapering slightly to a blunt point. They 
are driven into holes previously bored which their bevelled 
corners enable them to fit closely without splitting the wood. 
Glue is often added to strengthen their hold. These wooden 
pins are called dowels. 

C. Screwing together. 

Jointing Wood-SCFews, i.e., metal screws with thin, deep, sharp- 

7erem°^^ edged tap- worms, are used for screw-joints. Screws which 

are gimlet-pointed penetrate the wood more easily than 

others. 

The wood -screws used in screw-joints are of different 
kinds, with half-round, curtailed conical, or square heads. 
The two first only are used in wood-slojd. In both, the head 
of the nail is furnished with a slit for receiving the screw- 
driver. 



JOINTING. 



125 




Fig. 87. 
Wood-Screws. 

A with half-round, 



When A (Fig. 87) is used, the head of the 
screw remains above the surface of the wood. 
In joints made with B, the head is made to lie 
level with the surface, for which purpose the 
hole bored for its reception is afterwards 
counter-sunk. Wood-screws are made in many 
lengths from about \ inch to 3 inches, and of 
varying thickness. They are very generally 
used, and are especially useful for articles 
which require sometimes to be taken aparfc 
B with conical head, and put together again. 

In consequence of their peculiar form, screws give a much strength of 
stronger and firmer joint than nails, which hold the pieces '^^"^^^''"^ 
together simply by friction. A screw cannot be drawn out 
without unscrewing, unless the wood around it is cut away. 
The hole bored for the reception of the screw should be as 
deep as the length of the un wormed portion. 

D. Jointing by means of tlie formation 
of the parts of the joint. 

The names only of the various kinds of jointing of this 
nature are given below. A description will be found in 
Chapter V. 

1. Halving. 

2. Mitreing. 
o. Slotting. 

4*. Mortise and Tenon-jointing. 

5. Groove-jointing. 

6. Dove-tailing. 

7. Hooping. 



126 



FIFTH 
E X E R 






Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



Long cut 



To cut off a piece of wood in the direction 



of the length of the fibres. 




Gross cut 



Oblique cut 
Bevel cut 



Fig. 88. 

To cut off a piece of wood at right angles to 
the fibres. 




Fig. 89. 

To cut off a piece of wood obliquely to the 
fibres. 

To cut off a piece of wood in the direction 
of the length of the fibres in such a way 
as to produce a surface at an oblique 
angle to the adjacent surfaces. 



CHAPTER. 

C I S E S. 



127 




Knife 



Knife. 



Knife. 
Knife. 



The knife is taken firmly by the handle, and the cut is made 
always in the direction of the fibres, but away from the 
worlcer. To steady and strengthen the hand which 
holds the wood, and to render the exercise easier, the 
piece of wood should always rest upon a board laid on 
the bench. 



The cut is made from both sides to avoid splitting {a—h). 
If the cut is short, the wood is laid upon the bench. 
If it is long, the wood is held in one hand and the upper 
arm is pressed against the body to secure greater 
strength and support during the exercise. For the 
manner of holding the knife see Ex. 1. For the proper 
position see Plate I. 



The cut is made in the direction of the fibres, not contrary to 
it. For the manner of execution see No. 2 (Fig. 89 c — d). 

For the manner of execution see No. 1. 



128 




Purpose of Exercise. 



Sawing off. 



Convex cut. 



Long -sawing. 



Edge-planing. 



To saw off a piece of wood at right angles to 
the fibres. 



To cut off a piece of wood, convex in shape. 




Fig. 90. 
To rip up a piece of wood lengthwise. 



To plane a piece of wood, the surface of 
which is narrower than the plane-iron. 




Fisc. 91. 



129 




Broad-webbed 
bow-saw. 



Knife. 



Broad-webbed 
bow-saw. 

Trying-plane. 



The piece of wood is screwed into the bench, and the saw is 
worked with long, gentle strokes parallel with the edge 
of the bench (see Fig. 89 a—b, and page 84). The final 
strokes must be made cautiously, because the wood may 
easily be split. Before beginning the exercise, the 
worker should see that both edges of the saw are in the 
same plane, and that the teeth of the saw point away 
from him. 

The fibres are cut obliquely (a—b). See further under Ko. 3. 
(See also Plate I. for the position of the worker.) 



For the method of execution, see No, 5. 
for the position of the worker. 



See also Plate II. 



The piece of wood is fastened between the bench-pegs so 
that it lies firmly and evenly upon the bench. Before 
the plane is used it should be carefully set for the par- 
ticular kind of wood to be planed, i.e., the plane-iron 
should come lower down in the case of loose-fibred wood 
than for hard wood, and the cover should be placed 
farther from the edge of the iron in the former case than 
in the latter (see page 98). The handle of the plane is 
firmly grasped in one hand,'and the other is placed right 
in front of the socket. The plane is then worked 
briskly to and fro over the surface. The path of the 
plane must always be horizontal, regulated by the 
difference in the pressure given by one or other of the 
hands. For the position of the worker, see Plate III. 



130 



^ -5 

s o ^ 
hi X 



Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



Squaring. 



To prove whether two plane surfaces in a 
piece of wood are at right angles. 




10 



Gauging. 



Fig. 92. 



To produce parallel lines at a given distance 
from the edge of the work. 




Fig. 93. 



131 




Square. 



Marking gauge. 



The stock of the square is grasped in one hand ; and its 
inner surface is applied close to the face of the work 
(z'.e., the side first planed), while the blade rests upon 
the other side. 



The stock of the marking gauge is held steadily and closely 
to the faced-up sides of the work parallel to which the 
line is to be made. 



132 






Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



11 



12 



13 



14 



Boring with the 
shell-hit (pin- 
hit). 



Face-planing. 



Filing. 



Boring with the 
centre-hit 



To make a hole of small diameter. 



To plane a piece of wood when the surface 
is broader than the plane-iron. 



To dress up rough surfaces. 



To make a hole of large diameter. 



133 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Sliell-bit (pin- 
bit). 



Trying-plane. 



File. 



Centre-bit. 



The object in view is partly to make a hole and partly to 
. avoid splitting the wood, when sprigs, larger nails, or 
screws are put in. The left hand is laid upon the brace 
stock, to give pressure from above downwards ; the 
right hand grasps the handle in the middle, and the 
brace is turned towards the right, care being taken that 
the centre of the bit enters the right place in the wood, 
and that the direction of the hole is perpendicular to 
the plane of the work or the bench. The latter con- 
dition presents some difficulty, especially to beginners, 
and is best fulfilled by the slojder's standing alternately 
in one of two positions, in order that he may see the bit 
from each side of a right angle. To give greater pres- 
sure and steadiness, the chin may be made to rest on 
the left hand. For the position of the worker see 
Plate IV. and V. 

The manner of execution is shewn in No. 8 and in Fig. 91. 
The broader the surface, the more difficult is the exercise. 
To test whether the surface is really level, the plane is 
laid across it ; or, better still, winding laths are laid, one 
on each end of the piece of work. If the upper edges 
lie in the same plane the surface is true. 

When the plane surface of an end piece is to be dressed up, 
the piece of wood should be secm-ed in the carpenter's 
bench. If, on the other hand, the surface is convex, the 
work should merely be supported on it. In the former 
case the handle of the file is firmly grasped in one hand, 
whilst the other rests upon the back of the blade near 
the point. The tool is then passed steadily and evenly 
over the surface, pressure being exerted only when the 
file is going from the worker. If the work merely rests 
on the bench, the file can of course only be worked with 
one hand. When rounded surfaces are filed, the tool is 
worked in the direction of the fibres, or when this is 
impossible, obliquely to them. 

For method of execution see No. 11. Care must be taken 
that the bit cuts evenly. 



134 



Name of Exercise. 



H 



Purpose of Exercise. 



15 
16 



Convex scnuing. 
Concave cut. 



17 



18 



19 



20 



Bevelling. 



Convex model- 
ling with the 
plane. 

Sawing with 
tenon-saw. 



Wave-sawing. 



21 



Plane surface 
cut. 



To saw out a shape following a curved line. 
To cut out a concave shape. 




Fiff. 94. 



To plane a bevelled edge. 



To plane a convex surface. 



To saw carefully when no other saw can as 
advantageously be used. 



To saw out after a curved line. 




Fig. 95. 
To form a broad surface with the knife. 



135 



Tools required. 


Directions for Work. 


Turn-saw. 


The saw is worked in the direction of a curve previously 




drawn (see Fig. 90, a — h). 


Knife. 


The knife is worked both from the worker and towards him, 




while the arm is pressed gently against the side, to 




steady the hand which holds the work. See farther 




No. 1. 


Trying-plane. 


The plane is made to produce a surface at an olDlique angle 




to two others, in the same direction as the fibres. See 




farther No. 8. 


Smoothing- 


The work is fastened between the bench-pegs. See No. 8 


plane. 


for method of execution. 


Tenon-saw. 


As the tenon saw has smaller teeth than the other saws used 




in slojd carpentry, it is very suitable in cases where 




there is danger of splitting the wood. The tool should 




be worked with a light hand, and all pressure avoided. 


Turn-saw. 


For the method of execution see No. 7, bearing in mind that 




the frame of the saw must be inclined to the one side or 




to the other, according to the cmrves of the line (c — c/, 




Fig. 95). 


Knife. 


Greater strength is required for this than for the preceding 




cuts, as almost the entire length of the blade is used. 



136 






Name of Exercise. 



22 



Scraping. 



23 



24 



25 



Stop-planing 
(obstacle- 
planing). 



Perpendicular 
chiselling, or 
p>aring. 

Oblique chisel- 
ling, or par- 
ing. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



To finish up surfaces. 




Fk. 96. 



To plane a piece of Avood which presents 
obstacles to the advance of the plane. 




• Fig. 97. 

To cut doAvn and smooth a surface. 



To pare off a piece of wood obliquely to the 
fibres, but in the direction in which they 



run. 



137 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Scraper. 



Smoothino^- 
plane. 



The tool is worked, as far as possible, in the direction of the 
fibres j in every other case obliquely to them. When 
the scraper is efficiently used, other means of finishing 
need only be sparingly employed. 



Firmer chisel. 



Firmer chisel. 



The method of execution is, as nearly as possible, that de- 
scribed under 'No. 33, with this exception, that the tool 
is passed somewhat obliquely over the surface, in order 
to smooth it as near the obstacle as possible. [There is 
an English plane specially adapted for this sort of work 
called a Stop Champher Plane. — Tes.] 



The tool is grasped firmly by the handle in one hand, and 
worked perpendicularly, the upper arm being pressed 
firmly against the side to give the necessary support. 
The other hand holds the work on a cutting-board on 
the bench. (See Plate VI. for position of worker.) 

The piece of work must either be held firmly on the bench 
with one hand, or, when it seems necessary, fastened be- 
tween the bench-pegs. The tool is firmly grasped by 
the other hand, and its face pressed against the wood 
(see Fig. 89, c — d). Oblique chiselling is always done in 
the direction in which the fibres run. 



138 



I2; f^ 



Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



26 



27 



28 



Gouging with 
the gouge and 
the spoon-iron. 

Concave chisel- 
ling. 



Chopping. 



To produce depressions of various degrees of 
depth in a piece of wood. 



To produce a concave surface. 



29 



80 



81 



Smoothing or 
dressing up 
with the spoke- 
shave. 



To split up and dress off rough and uneven 
surfaces. 



To dress up rounded surfaces. 




Modelling with 
the spoheshave. 

Oblique sawing. 



Fig. 98. 
To model rounded surfaces. 



To saw off a piece of wood obliquely to the 
fibres. 



139 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Gouge and 
spoon-iron. 



Firmer chisel. 



Axe. 



Spokeshave. 



Spokeshave. 



The coarser preliminary work is done with the gouge, and 
the necessary pressure is given by mallet blows on the 
handle. The spoon-iron is worked with both hands, and 
the pressure thus given, being lateral, serves to remove 
the inequalities left by the gouge. 

The handle of the tool is firmly grasped in one hand, and the 
other hand rests upon the face of the blade to direct its 
course, which must always be in the direction in which 
the fibres run. The article should be made fast in the 
back bench-vice. (See Fig. 95, a — o.) 

One hand supports the piece of wood on the chopping-block ; 
the other hand wields the axe. Should the wood be 
" contrary " it must be turned the way of the grain, or 
"humoured." For the position of the worker, see 
Plate VII. 

The work is fixed in the bench-vice. The tool is firmly 
grasped in both hands, with heavy forivard pressure 
from the thumbs, and downward pressure from the 
fingers. When necessary, the forward dkection of work- 
ing may be reversed. For the position of the worker see 
Plate VIII. 



For method of execution see No. 29. 



Broad webbed | For method of execution see No. 5, and Fig. 89, c—d. 
oow-saw. 



uo 



S 'o " Name of Exercise. 

■ c o I 



Purpose of Exercise. 



32 

S3 



34 



35 



36 



Ohliqiie planing. To smooth surfaces in an oblique direction, 
I over the fibres. 

Dressing ivith I To produce a smooth and finished surface. 
the smoothing- 
plane ; or 
smoothing up. - ^ 




End squaring. 

Halving luith 
knife. 



Work in hard 
wood. 



Fisr. 99. 



To smooth up the surfaces of end pieces 
across the fibres. 

To fasten two pieces of wood together as 
shown in Fig. 100. 




To manipulate very close-grained hard wood. 



141 




Directions for Work. 



Smoothing- 
plane. 

Smoothing - 
plane. 



Smoothing- 
plane. 

Knife, 



For method of execution see 'No. 33. 



For directions for fastening the work into the bench see 
No. 8. The plane is firmly grasped in front and at the 
back (see Fig. 99), and worked briskly over the surface 
of the work. To produce a fine surface, the iron must 
be very sharp and lie as nearly as possible in the same 
plane as the sole, while the cover must lie close to the 
edge to prevent the fibres from splitting, whatever 
direction the plane may take. (See p. 100.) 



The piece of wood is fastened vertically into the bench. To 
avoid splitting at the corners, the work should proceed 
from corners to centre. 

1. The work is set out with square, compass, and marking 

gauge. 

2. It is cut out with the knife. 

3. The parts are fitted together. 

This exercise requires great care and accuracy. 



As a general rule greater strength is required for wood of 
this kind than for softer wood. 



142 




37(a) 



Fitting in 'pegs. 



37(6) 



38 



Plugging. 



Bevelled edge- 
planing. 



To joint two pieces of wood together by 
means of a dowel or pin which fits 
accurately into a hole bored with cen- 
tre-bit or auger-bit. 




Fig. 101. 
To fill up a hole by means of a round plug. 



To produce a plane surface at oblique angles 
to two other plane surfaces. 

/ , 
) ■ 




Fiff. 102. 



143 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Square ; centre- 
bit ; knife. 



Centre-bit ; 
knife ; firmer 
chisel. 

Trying-plane. 



1. The hole is drilled with the centre-bit. 

2. After finding the centre of the peg, a circle is described 

with the bit to be used in order to get the size of the 
peg. 

3. The dowel or pin is set out with the square and made 

cylindrical with the knife, so that it may fit closely and 
steadily into the hole. 



The centre-bit used for the hole is used for marking out the 
size of the plug, and the fitting is done with the knife 
and chisel. 

The exercise is performed according to the directions given 
in No. 17, with this exception, that the work is laid flat 
on the bench, and the plane is held obliquely at the 
angle required. 



144 



c o ^ 

S ^ o 



Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



39 
40 

41 



42 
43 



44 



45 



Glueing. 

Boring ivith 
bradawl. 

Sinking and fix- 
ing metal 
plates, and 
other metal 
fittings. 

Railing. 

Punching. 

Bevelling with 
the dravj- 
knife. 



To ^x pieces o£ wood together. 

To produce small holes in a piece of wood. 

To fix simple metal plates, etc. on a piece ot* 
work. 



To fasten pieces of wood together with nails. 

To sink a nail-head below the surface of the 
wood. 

To produce a broad bevel in the same direc- 
tion as the fibres run. 




L'''-^S»w.i>i^^^ll||)jrf^ 



Perpendicular 
gouging. 



Fio-. 103. 



To produce a concave excavation, perpen- 
dicular to a plane surface. 



145 



Tools required. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



Bradawl. 

Screw-driver ; 
firmer chisel 
bradawl. 



Hammer. 



Punch ; hammer. 



Draw-knife. 



♦ 



Gouge with 
edffe on the 
convex side. 



See Chap. IV. pp. 121, 122. 

The tool is worked with one hand, and turned steadily hack- 
wards and forwards under even pressure. 

1. If the plate, etc. is to he sunk, the firmer chisel is used. 

2. The plate is screwed on with the screw driver care heing 

taken that the screw passes right down into the wood. 



See jointing, Chapter IV., pp. 123, 124. 

The punch is held steadily on the head of the nail and struck 
sharply with the hammer ; otherwise it may slip aside 
and make disfiguring holes in the work. 

The article is screwed into the bench, and the tool, held firmly 
hy both handles, is worked steadily over the wood. The 
exercise is rendered considerably easier if the draw-knife 
is held obliquely, i.e., if the one end is somewhat in ad- 
vance of the other. If contrary wood is encountered, the 
work should, if possible, he turned to allow the knife to 
cut in the direction of the fibres. [The face of the tool 
should he held towards the worker, with the hovelled 
edge on the work. — Tks.] 



For method of execution see No. 24. 



K 



146 



O 03 

5 ^ <» 



Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



46 



Plain jointing. 



47 



Dove-tail clamp- 
ing. 



48 



49 



Oblique gouging. 



GhampTiering. 



To plane pieces of wood intended to be 
jointed by glueing. 



To insert a clamp in a broad piece of wood, 
to prevent warping. 




Fig. 104. 

To pare a piece of wood in the direction of 
the fibres, but obliquely to them. 

To pare a piece of wood at an obtuse or at 
an acute angle to its surface. 



147 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Trying-plane. 



Compass ; 
square ; 
marking:- 
point ; bevel ; 
marking- 
gauge; knife; 
tenon-saw ; 
groove-saw ; 
firmer chisel ; 
old woman's 
tooth-plane ; 
jack-plane ; 
trying-plane. 

Gouge. 



Firmer chisel. 



The greatest care is required in plain joiating in order that the 
surfaces which are to be united may fit accurately. The 
directions given in JSTo. 8 must he followed. The trying- 
plane should be very finely set for this exercise, in order 
that it may remove very thin shavings. The angle 
which the edge makes with the side of the work must 
be frequently tested with the square ; the straightness 
of the edge must also be tested by the eye. The second 
piece of wood is treated in the same way, and when it is 
ready, the edge of the first piece is placed upon it for 
trial. If the joint is accurate, the two surfaces will 
touch at all points, and when placed against the light 
will not allow a single ray to pass through. If any light 
shines through, the parts which are too high must be 
carefully planed down with long, steady strokes. If two 
or more planks are to be jointed for broad work, the sur- 
faces must lie in the same plane, and this must be tested 
by placing against them the straight-edge or the blade 
of the square. 

1. The groove for the clamp is set out with the compass, 

square, marking-point, bevel, and marking-gauge ; and 
a start for the saw is made with the knife. 

2. It is cut out with the tenon-saw or groove-saw, firmer 

chisel, and old woman's tooth-plane. 

3. The clamp is made ready with the jack-plane and the 

trying-plane, care being taken that it fits accurately all 
round. 



For method of execution see !N"o. 25, with this difference, that 
the gouge is used instead of the firmer chisel. 

For method of execution see No. 25. 



148 






50 



51 



52 



53 



54 



55 



56 



57 



Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



Circular saw- 
ing. 

Screwing to- 
gether, or fix- 
ing with screius. 

Modelling with 
the draw-knife. 

Planing across 
the grain. 

Wedge planing 
with smooth- 
ing plane. 

Planing with 
rownd-plane. 

Fixing with 
wooden pegs, 
for planing 
thin wood. 



To saw out a circular shape. 

To fasten two pieces of work together by 
means of screws. 

To produce a rounded surface of large extent. 
To plane up a broad surface across the grain. 

To plane an article noi only in the direction 
of the fibres, but obliquely to them (or 
to form an oblique object). 

To dress up broad concave surfaces. 

To fix down, by means of wooden pegs, a thin 
piece of wood on the surface of a larger 
piece, in order to plane the former. 




Single dove-tail- 
ing at right 
angles. 



Fig. 105. 

To dove-tail two pieces of wood together by 
means of one dove-tail pin. 




Fig. 106. 



149 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Turn-saw. 



Screwdriver ; 
pin-bit. 

Draw-knife. 

Trying-plane. 

Smoothing- 
plane. 

Round-plane. 



Pin-bit; knife 
hammer. • 



Compass ; 
square; 
marking- 
point ; bevel ; 
cutting- 
gauge; knife; 
tenon- saw ; 
groove-saw ; 
firmer chisel ; 
old woman's 
tooth-plane. 



The piece of wood is fastened into the back bench-vice, and 
the saw is used according to the dhections given in 
N"o. 15. 

For method of execution see No. 41, and also jointing, Chap. 
IV., p. 124. 

For method of execution see No. 44. 

For method of execution see No. 12. 

For method of execution see No. 33. 



For method of execution see No. 33. To produce a good 
result the plane must be worked very smoothly and 
steadily. 

Care must be taken that the under piece is level. The wood 
to be planed is placed on it, and holes are drilled with 
the pin-bit, close to each end of the upper piece, through 
to the under piece. Suitable pins are then driven into 
these holes, and a stable foundation is thus provided for 
the work of the plane. 



1. The groove is set out with compass, square, marking point, 

bevel and cutting-gauge, and a start for the saw is made 
with the knife. 

2. It is cut out with the tenon-saw or groove-saw, firmer 

chisel, and old woman's tooth-plane. 

3. The clamp is set out with the cutting-gauge, and cut out 

with the knife. 
Care must be taken that the dove-tail fits accurately. 



150 






Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



58 



Common dove- 
tailing. 



59 



Square shooting, 
or planing 
with shooting- 
hoard. 



To " corner-joint " by dove-tailing, i.e., to in 
sert bevelled pins into tightly fitting 
sockets. 




Fig. 107. 
To plane a narrow piece of wood across the 
grain by means of the shooting-board. 




151 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Cutting-gauge ; 
compass ; 
bevel ; square ; 
dove-tail saw ; 
marking- 
point ; firmer 
chisel. 



Trying-plane ; 
shooting- 
board. 



1. The thickness of the wood to be dove-tailed is marked with 

the cutting-gauge across the ends of the pieces of wood 
on both sides. 

2. The required bevel of the pins is indicated with compass, 

bevel, and square. 

3. The pins are cut out with dove-taU saw and firmer chisel. 

4. The pin end is held steadily on the other piece of wood at 

right angles to it, and the pins are marked out with the 
marking point. Then these marks are squared across 
the end of the wood. 

5. They are cut out with the dove-tail saw and the firmer 

chisel. 

6. The parts are carefully fitted together. 



For the proper setting of the plane see No. 8. Great care 
is necessary when the shooting-board is in use, because 
the worker may easily hurt himself. See p. 67. 



152 



' o '-' 



60 



61 



Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



62 



68 



64 



Hollowing out ; 
or scooping 
out with gouge 

Axle fitting. 
[This exercise 
only applies 
to one Swedish 
model, i.e., the 
shuttle. — Trs.] 

Housing, or 
square groov- 
ing. 



Long oblique 
planing. 

Setting out. 



To produce narrow concave depressions ; or 
to hollow out with the gouge. 

To fit an axle into a hole. 



To divide boxes, etc. into two or more rec- 
tangular portions by means of pieces of 
wood. 




Fig. 109. 



To plane a long bevelled edge. 



To set out divisions in the work. 



I 



153 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Gouofe. 



Compass; brad- 
awl ; firmer 
chisel. 



Compass ; 
square ; 
marking- 
gauge ; saw ; 
firmer chisel : 
smoothing- 
plane. 



Trying-plane. 

Compass ; 
marking- 
point; square. 



For method of execution see No. 26. 



1. The axle is set out with the compass. 

2. The hole and the slot are made with the bradawl and 

chisel. 



1. The groove is set out by means of the compass, square, 

and marking-gauge. 

2. It is cut out with the saw and the firmer chisel. 

3. The tenon, i.e., the piece which is set into the groove, is 

made to fit by means of the smoothing-plane. 



For method of execution see No. 8. 



The length is divided with the compass, first into larger, 

and then into smaller parts. 
The lines are drawn with the marking-point at right angles 

to the edge of the object. Great accuracy is required in 

marking off the divisions. 



154 



S«tH O 
o <-> 



Name of Exercise. 



65 



m 



67 



68 



Purpose of Exercise. 



Panel-grooving. 



Glueing with 
aid of hand- 
screw. 



Sawing with 
compass (or 
keyhole) saw. 



Oblique edge- 
grooving. 



To produce rectangular depressions in an 
object, into which a fiat piece of wood is 
to be slotted. 




Fig. 110. 

To glue together with the aid of the hand- 
screw. 



To saw out a hole in a piece of wood. 



To join two pieces of wood together by means 
of a single dove-tail, at an obtuse angle. 





ill 

11 




»—=-—- -- ■ 


- _ . _,^ _-___-- 


3=:;;^;= 


Bi^^^-^ 



Fig. 111. 



155 




Cutting-gauge ; 
knife ; firmer 
chisel; plough. 



Handscrew. 



Centre-bit ; 
compass-saw. 



Compass : 

square; mark- 
ing point ; 
bevel; cutting- 
gauge; knife ; 
tenon-saw or 
groove-saw ; 
firmer chisel; 
old woman's 
tooth-plane ; 
smoothing- 
plane. 



1. The groove is set out with the cutting-gauge. 

2. It is cut out with the knife and the firmer chisel. In the 

case of many objects the plough may be employed with 
advantage to cut out the groove. 



Before the glue is applied to the joint, the parts must fit 
accurately ; otherwise the pressure of the handscrew will 
be of little service. A piece of wood should be laid 
between the work and the screw to prevent injury to the 
surface of the article, and also to distribute the pressure 
more equally. 



Two holes are drilled in the piece of work with the centre- 
bit. The article is then fastened vertically into the 
bench and the saw is worked from one hole to the other, 
following lines previously set out. (In the case of small 
articles, use may be made of a turn-saw, the blade of 
which is detachable at one end.) 



1. The groove is set out with the compass, square, marking- 

point, bevel, and cutting-gauge ; and a start for the saw 
is made with the knife. 

2. It is cut out with the tenon-saw or groove-saw, firmer 

chisel, and old woman's tooth-plane. 

3. The required form of the end of the dove-tail is set out 

with the cutting-gauge and the bevel, and it is beveUed 
with the smoothing-plane. 

4. The clamp is cut out with the knife. 

5. The parts are fitted together. 



156 



2*0^; Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



69 



70 



71 



72 



Slotting. 



Dove-tailing in 
thick wood. 



Mitreing. 



Common m.or- 
tise and tenon. 



To join two pieces of wood, of which one is 
thinner than the other, in such a manner 
that the former slots into the latter at 
a right angle. 




Fig. 112. 
To make a rectangular corner-joint by dove- 
tailing two pieces of thick wood. 



To make an end-joint with two pieces of 
wood at an angle of 45^. 



J Hill 



Fig. 113. 
To join by means of a mortise and tenon. 



157 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Square ; mark- 
ing gauge ; 
tenon-saw (or 
dove-tail saw) 
firmer chisel ; 
mallet. 



Cutting-gauge ; 

compass ; 

bevel; square; 

dove-tail saw ; 

marking- 
point; firmer 

chisel. 
Square; Qom- 

pass ; firmer 

chisel ; 

smoothing- 

plane. 



Square; mortise 
gauge ; 

mortise chisel : 
mallet ; 
tenon-saw. 



1. The tenon (A a) and (B a), and the slot (B b), are set 

out with the square and the marking gauge. 

2. The slot (B h) is cut down with the tenon (or dove-tail) 

saw, and cut out with a coarse firmer chisel, (or mortise- 
chisel) by aid of the mallet. 

3. The tenon (B a) is made with the tenon (or dove-tail) 

saw and the firmer chisel. It is called a shoulder tenon. 
The tenon (A a) is simply fitted into the slot with the 
smoothing plane. It is called an unshouldered tenon. 

4. The parts are fitted together, and if necessary the firmer 

chisel is used. 



For method of execution see No. 58 ; but note that still 
greater accuracy is required, because exercises with the 
saw and the firmer chisel are always more difl&cult when 
the thickness of the wood either faUs under a certain 
limit, or exceeds it (Fig. 107). 



For method of execution see !No. 25. The completion of the 
joint depends on the nature of the object in which the 
exercise occurs. It may require mortising, glueing, 
nailing, screwing together with wood screws, etc. When 
the object is large, the smoothing-plane is used in 
mitreing. [The English method of making this mitre is 
by means of a mitre-box and shooting-board, in which 
case the saw and trymg-xolane are used. — Tiis.] 



1. 



The mortise is set out by means of the square and the 
mortise gauge. 

It is cut out with the mortise-chisel with the aid of the 

mallet. 
The tenon is cut out with tenon-saw and firmer chisel. 

The parts are fitted together, the firmer chisel being 
employed when necessary. 



158 




Purpose of Exercise. 



73 



74 



75 



Half-lapping. 



Rebating. 



Graving with 
V-tool or 
parting-tool 
(fluting). 



To joint together two pieces of wood by half- 
lapping the broad sides together, i.e., by 
cutting half the depth of the wood away 
from each. 




Fier. 114. 



To make a rebate. 




Fig. 115. 
To hollow out depressions or edges. 



159 



Tools required. 



Square; mark- 
ing point ; 
marking- 
gauge ; tenon- 
saw ; firmer 
chisel. 



Marking-gauge ; 
knife ; firmer 
chisel. 



Parting-tool. 



Directions for Work. 



1. The half-lapping parts are set out with the square, marking- 

point and marking-gauge. 

2. They are cut out with tenon-saw and firmer chisel. 

3. The parts are fitted together with the aid of the chisel. 



The breadth and thickness of the rebate are set out with 
the marking-gauge. 

It is cut out with the knife and the firmer chisel. [This 
holds good only of the small rebates which occur in 
Slojd carpentry. The plough and the rebate plane are 
used for larger work. — Tks.] 



The object is screwed tightly into the bench, and the part- 
ing-tool is wielded with a steady hand. 



160 






Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



76 



77 



78 



Half-lap dove- 
tailing. 



To produce a rectangular end joint by dove- 
tailing together two pieces o£ wood, so 
that the dove-tailing does not show on 
one side. To do this, one-third of the 
wood is not cut through on the side 
where the pins are. The socket piece is 
cut right through and dove-tailed in 
the ordinary way. 



Hinge-sinking, 
or fixing 
hinges-. 



Lock-fitting. 




Fig. 116. 








Fig. 117. 



161 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Cutting-gauge ; 
compass ; 
bevel; square; 
tenon-saw 
(dove-tail 
saw) ; mark- 
ing point ; 
firmer chisel. 



Square ; firmer 
chisel ; brad- 
awl ; screw- 
driver. 



Pin-bit ; firmer 
chisel ; knife ; 
bradawl ; 
screwdriver ; 
compass-saw. 



For method of execution see No. 58, paying special attention 
to setting the piece on which the pins are in an oblique 
position in the back bench-vice. The pins are sawn out 
to the lines indicated by the marking point, which deter- 
mine the thickness of the wood to be left. The spaces be- 
tween are smoothed by perpendicular paring with the 
firmer chisel. (See No. 24.) 



1. The position of the hinge is decided on and set out. 

2. The depth to which the hinge has to be sunk is taken and 

gauged. 

3. This part is then cut out with the firmer chisel. 

4. For screwing on, see Ko. 41. 



1. The position of the lock is decided on. 

2. The place is cut out with the pin-bit and the firmer chisel 

to a depth which permits the metal plate to lie on the 
same plane as the wood. 

3. The hole for the key is cut out with the centre-bit, knife 

and chisel. (In larger work with the compass-saw). 

4. For screwing on, see No. 41. l 



162 




79 



Oblique dove- 
tailing. 



80 



Oblique slotting 



To make a rectangular end -joint with ob- 
lique pieces of wood. 





To make an oblique angled joint with a pin 
and a slot. 





Fig. 119. 



163 




Directions for "Work. 



Bevel; dove- 
tail saw ; com- 
pass ; square ; 
tenon saw ; 
firmer chisel ; 
smoothing- 
plane. 



Compass ; 
square ; 
bevel ; 
marking- 
gauge; knife; 
firmer chisel ; 
dove-tail saw. 



1. Set out the angle at the ends with the bevel and saw off. 

2. Bevel off the edges to correspond with the angle at the 

ends of the adjacent sides. 

3. To get the angle ui the horizontal plane at the ends, use 

the square in the following way : Place the face against 
the side of the wood, and let the blade rest flat on the 
plane of the bevelled edge. Then draw the line and 
plane off. 

4. The required thickness of each piece is set out with the 

cutting gauge. 

5. The pins are set out at right angles to the oblique end 

with the compass, bevel, and square. 

6. They are made with the dove-tail saw and the firmer 

chisel. 

[Another method of working this joint is by means of a 
prepared shooting board, by which the two angles at the 
ends can be obtained at once. 

It may also be mentioned, that inihe English method of 
oblique dove-tailing, the dove-tad pins run in the same 
direction as the gram, or obliquely to it, and are consequently 
stronger. There are theoretical reasons why this method is 
not followed at Naas.— Trs.] 



1. The slot is set out with compass, square, and bevel. 

2. The depth of the groove is set out with the marking- 

gauge, and cut out with the knife and firmer chisel. 

3. The slot is sawn out with the dove-tail saw, and cut out 

with the firmer chisel. 

4. The parts are fitted together with the aid of the firmei 

chiseL 



164 



Number 

of 
Exercise. 


Name of Exercise. 


Purpose of Exercise. 



81 



82 



83 



Notched dove- 
tailing (half 
concealed edge 
grooving). 



To insert a dove-tail, the outer edge of which 
conceals the groove, into a piece of wood. 




Concave model- 
ling with 
plane (holloiu- 
ing with 
plane). 

Staving. 



Fig. 120. 
To produce a concave surface with the plane. 



To fix concave-shaped pieces of wood or 
staves to a curvilinear bottom piece, to 
make a barrel or bucket. 



■^M 



^ 



^ 




Fig. 121. 



165 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Compass ; 
square; mark- 
ing point ; 
bevel; cut- 
ting gauge; 
knife; tenon- 
saw or groove- 
saw; firmer 
chisel; old 
woman's 
tooth plane ; 
dove-tail saw. 



Round plane. 



Compass ; bow- 
saw ; spoke- 
shave ; bevel ; 
marking- 
point; mark- 
ing gauge ; 
knife ; firmer 
chisel; trying- 
plane ; 
smoothing- 
plane ; brad- 
awl. 



1. The groove is set out -with compass, square, marking- 

point, bevel, and cutting gauge; cut out -with knife, 
tenon-saw or groove-saw, firmer chisel, and old woman's 
tooth-plane 

2. The shape of the dove-tail is set out with square and 

cutting gauge, and cut out with dove-tail saw and 
knife. 

3. The parts are fitted together with the aid of the knife. 



1. The required curve is set out at both ends. 

2. The shape is produced by means of the roughing plane 

and the "round" plane. (See Fig. 121.) 



The bottom is made in the shape required. 

The edge of the bottom is bevelled to the angle required 

for the sides of the article. 
The position and breadth of the groove are set out with 

the marking-point. 
The necessary inclination of the sides of the staves is 

determiaed by the bevel. 
The depth of the groove is set out with the marking-gauge 

and cut out with the knife and the firmer chisel. 

6. The edges of the staves are planed and fitted together. 

7. The staves are held together by means of wooden pins 

inserted iato the edges from the iaside. 



4. 



5. 



166 



7^ H 



Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



84 



Hoo'ping. 



85 



Concealed tenon 
ing. 



To fix iron hoops round a barrel or bucket, 
to hold the staves together. (The wooden 
hoops frequently seen are not suitable for 
slojd work.) 



To joint two pieces of wood together at 
right angles by means of a concealed or 
haunched tenon. 




Fig. 122 a. 



Fig. 122 b. 



I 



167 



Tools required. 



Cold chisel ; 
punch; ham- 
mer; set 
hammer. 



Directions for Work. 



Square; mortise 
gauge; firmer 
chisel ; mor- 
tise chisel ; 
mallet; bow- 
saw; tenon- 
saw. 



1. The length of the hoop is taken and cut off with the cold 

chisel. 

2. A hole is made with the punch and hammer about half an 

inch from each end. 

3. The hoop is rivetted by means of a rivet, the head of 

which is larger than the hole. 

4. The head of the rivet is then made to rest on a block of 

metal, and the rivet itself is hammered until a head is 
formed on thelother side. 

5. The hoop is hammered from the inside of the article as it 

rests on the block, and thus made to fit. 

6. The hoops are put on from the narrowest portion of the 

article, and driven home by blows from the set hammer. 



1. The tenon and the mortise are set out at right angles. 

2. The breadth of the mortise and the thickness of the tenon 

are set out with the mortise gauge. 

3. The mortise is cut out with the mortise chisel. 

4. The tenon is made with the bow-saw, firmer chisel, and 

tenon-saw. 

5. The parts are fitted together with the help of the firmer 

chisel. 



168 



^ 




o 


1) 






^ 












a 


o 


u 


S 




X 



Name of Exercise. 



Purpose of Exercise. 



86 



87 



88 



Blocking. 



Mortised block- 
ing. 



Up and down 
sawing. 



To strengthen by means of blocks. 

N.B.— -In the illustration the fibres of the 
block are accidentally shown running in the 
wrong direction. 




Fig. 123. 

To strengthen by means of mortised blocks. 
[Sometimes called " button blocks." — Trs.] 




Fig. 124. 

To divide a long piece of wood into small 
pieces. 



169 



Tools required. 



Directions for Work. 



Dove-tail saw ; 
firmer chisel ; 
square. 



Square ; mark- 
ing gauge ; 
firmer chisel ; 
dove-tail saw. 



Broad-webbed 
bow-saw. 



1. The piece to be strengthened is held close to the other 

piece with the handscrew. 

2. The blocks are made with the dove-tail saw and the chisel. 

3. The blocks are warmed, glued, and put into their places. 

4. Before the handscrew is taken away, the glue must be 

quite dry. 



1. The mortise in the rail is set out at right angles with the 

square and the marking-gauge, and cut out with the 
firmer chisel. 

2. The tenon on the block is set out in accordance with the 

size of the mortise with the square and the marking gauge ; 
cut out with the dove- tail saw, and fitted with the firmer 
chisel. 

3. Previous to the blocking, the object to be fixed is held in 

position with the^handscrew. 

4. The blocks are warmed and glued on the two sides next 

the object, and put in their places. 



The plank is placed on the bench and held in place by a hand- 
screw. The blade of the saw is set almost at right angles 
to the plane of the frame, and the handle is grasped by 
one hand, while the other holds the upper end of the 
side arm, and the saw is worked vertically with long easy 
strokes, with the blade at right angles to the plane 
surface of the plank. 



171 




Plate I. Position : Convex Cut. 



173 




■'^^^^\Xv' 



Plate II. Position : Long-sawing. 



175 




Plate III. Position: Edge-planing-. 



177 




Plate IV. Position : Perpendicular boring with the brace. 



M 



179 








Plate v. Position : Horizontal boring with the brace. 



181 




'^^^^^f*w«m^^ 



^^v^. 



^W 



Plate VI. Position : Perpendicular chiselling. 



183 




Plate VII. Position : Chopping. 



185 




Plate VIII, Position : Smoothing, &c., witli the spokeshave. 



187 

Plate IX. Plan of S16jd-room in Katarina Elementary School, Stockholm. 




Sitv. 



A. Slojd room. 

1. Benches. 

2. Cupboard with two divisions : 

(i) for tools ; (2) for models. 

3. Cupboard with two divisions : 

(1) for unfinished work. 

(2) for finished articles. 

4. Teacher's desk. 

5. Cupboard : 

a. Iron vice. 

b. Iron saw-file vice. 

c. Anvil, 

6. Lathe. 

7. Racks for hand-screws and 

shooting-boards. 



8. Vices for rough work. 

9. Boring- stools, 

10. Saw-bench. 

11. Glue-pot. 

12. Chopping-block. 

13. Flat grindstone. 

14. Revolving grindstone. 

15. Wood-racks. 

16. Wash-hand basins. 

17. Stoves. 

3 racks for saws are introduced 
between the windows on the 



B. Lobby, 



long wall. 



189 





'^ „■., 'ill 'ii ii '. -'i • 1 

i' i\'\'-A'Mi 

//, 



1' / 



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pm 




Plate X. 



A. Marking gauge (Johansson's) with stock adjusted by wedges. ^. 

B. Marking gauge (Lundmark's modified) with stock adjusted by thumb-screw. ^. 
D. Plough-gauge, a and b, different methods of adjustment, i. 



192 



193 





V 



Plate XI. Tool Cupboard. 



D m 

Plan of 
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201 



Lists of Tools required for different numbers of Pupils. 



A. List of Tools required for 


one pupil. 


1 Shooting-board. 




Hand-saw. 


1 Half-round file. 


2 Handscrews. 




Tenon-saw. 


1 Round file. 

■ 


1 Metre-measure or 




Compass-saw. 


1 Scraper. 


Eule. 


1 Groove-saw. 


1 Brace, with set of 


1 Marking-point. 




Axe. 


bits. 


1 Marking-gauge. 




Knife. 


1 Bradawl. 


1 Outting-gauge. 




Draw-knife. 


1 Mallet. 


1 pair of Compasses. 


i 


set (6) Firmer- 


1 Hammer. 


1 Square. 




Chisels. 


1 pair of Pincers. 


1 Bevel. 


2 


Mortise Chisels. 


1 Wire-cutter. 


1 Saw-set. 


1 

2 


set (6) Gouges. 


1 pair flat-jawed Pliers 


1 Saw-sharpening 




Spoon-iron. 


1 pair round-jawed 


clamps. 




Jack-plane. 


Pliers. 


1 Triangular file. 




Trying-plane. 


1 Screwdiiver. 


1 Bow-saw. 




Smoothing-plane. 


1 Glue-pot and Brush. 


1 Dove-tail saw. 




Compass-plane. 


1 Grindstone, 


1 Turn-saw (broad- 




Old woman's tooth- 


1 Oilstone. 


webbed). 




plane. 


1 Oil-can. 


1 Turn-saw (narrower 




Spokeshave. 


Sandpaper. 


webbed). 




Flat file. 





B. Minimura number of Tools required for the simul- 
taneous instruction of 6 to 8 pupils. 



1 Shooting-board. 


2 Marking-points. 


1 Bevel. 


2 Handscrews. 


3 to 4 Marking-gauges.* 


1 Saw-set. 


6 to 8 Metre-measures 


3 pair Compasses. 


1 Saw-sharpening 


or Rules. 


3 to 4 Squares.* 


clamps. 



[^ With regard to the minimum number of tools requu-ed, the reader is 
referred to Chapter I., p. 24, and is strongly recommended to provide 
each child, if possible, with a complete beric/i, set, viz : — knife, jack-plane, 
trying-plane, smoothing-plane, square, marking-gauge, compass, rule or 
metre-measure, and scraper, — Trs.] 



202 



HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 



2 Triangular files. 
2 Bow-saws. 
1 Dove-tail saw. 

1 Turn -saw (broad- 

webbed). 

2 Turn-saws (narrower 

webbed). 
1 Hand-saw. 
1 Tenon-saw. 
1 Compass-saw. 
1 Groove-saw. 
1 Axe. 

6 to 8 Knives. 
1 Draw-knife. 
1 set (12) Firmer 

Chisels. 



1 set (4) Mortise 

Chisels. 
^ set (6) Gouges. 
3 Spoon-irons. 

2 Jack-planes.* 

.3 Trying-planes.* 

3 Smoothing-planes.* 
1 Compass-plane. 

1 Old woman's tooth - 

plane. 

2 Spokeshaves. 

1 Flat file. 

2 Half-round files. 
1 Round file. 

3 Scrapers.* 



1 Brace, with set of 
bits. 

1 Bradawl. 
3 Mallets. 

2 Hammers.* 
1 pair Pincers. 
1 Wire-cutter. 

1 pair flat Pliers. 

1 pair round Pliers. 

2 Screwdrivers. 

1 Glue-pot and Brush, 

1 Grindstone. 

2 Oilstones. 
1 Oil-can. 

Sandpaper. 



C. Minimum number of Tools required for the simul- 
taneous instruction of 12 pupils. 



2 Shooting-boards. 

3 Handscrews. 

12 Metre-measures or 
Rules. 

4 Marking-points. 

8 Marking-gauges.* 
2 Cutting-gauges. 
6 pair of Compasses. 
8 Squares.* 
2 Bevels. 
2 Saw-sets. 

2 Saw-sharpening 

clamps. 
4 Triangular files. 

3 Bow-saws. 

2 Dove-tail saws. 

2 Turn-saws (broad- 
webbed). 

2 Turn-saws (narrower 
webbed). 



1 Hand-saw. 
1 Tenon-saw. 
1 Compass-saw. 
1 Groove-saw. 
1 Axe. 
12 Knives. 
1 Draw-knife. 
1 set (12) Firmer 

Chisels. 
^ set (4) Mortise 

Chisels. 
^ set (6) Gouges. 

3 Spoon-irons. 

4 Jack-planes.* 

8 Trying-planes.* 
8 Smoothing-planes.* 
1 Compass-plane. 
4 Spokeshaves. 
1 Flat file. 
3 Half-round files. 



2 Round files. 
6 Scrapers.* 

1 Brace, with set of 

bits. 

2 Bradawls. 
4 Mallets. 

3 Hammers.* 

1 pair of Pincers. 

1 Wire-cutter. 

1 pair flat Pliers. 

1 pair round Pliers. 

6 Screwdrivers. 

1 Glue-pot with Brush. 

1 Grindstone. 

2 Oilstones. 
1 Oil-can. 

Sandpaper. 



* See note, page 201. 



LIST OF TOOLS. 



203 



D. Complete list of Tools required for the simultaneous 
instruction of 12 pupils. 



3 Shooting-boards. 

4 Handscrews. 

12 Metre-measures. 
8 Marking-points. 
12 Marking-gauges. 
2 Cutting-gauges. 
6 pair of Compasses. 
12 Squares. 
2 Bevels. 
2 Saw-sets. 

2 Saw-sharpening 

clamps. 
4 Triangular files. 
4 Bow-saws. 

3 Dove-tail saws. 

4 Turn-saws (broad- 

webbed). 
4 Turn-saws 

(narrower webbed). 



3 Hand-saws (tenon- 
saws). 

1 G-roove-saw. 

2 Axes. 

12 Knives. 

2 Draw-knives. 

2 sets (24) Firmer 
Chisels. 

1 set (8) Mortise 
Chisels. 

1 set (12) Gouges. 

6 Spoon-irons. 

12 Jack-planes. 

12 Trying-planes. 

12 Smoothing-planes. 

1 Compass-plane. 

1 Old woman's tooth- 
plane. 

6 Spokeshaves. 



4 Flat files. 
6 Half-round files. 
4 Round files. 
6 Scrapers. 

1 Brace with set of 

bits. 
3 Bradawls. 
8 Mallets. 
12 Hammers. 

2 pair of Pincers. 
1 Wire-cutter, 

1 pair flat Pliers. 
1 pair round Pliers. 
6 Screwdrivers. 
1 G-lue-pot with Brush. 
1 Grindstone. 

3 Oilstones. 
1 Oil-can. 

Sandpaper. 



204 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 

The cost of providing the above tools, calculated according to the 
prices* now current (in Sweden), is as follows :— 

List (A) about 50 Kronor.t 
„ (^) „ 85 „ 

?5 (O 35 13^ 5J 

„ (i>) „ 205 „ 

The number of benches required is as follows : — 

For List (A) 1 
„ „ (B) 3 or 4 
„ „ (G) 8 
„ „ (i>) 12 

If double benches are used, only half the number will be required in 
the cases of (BJ, (CJ, and (I) J respectively. As double benches are 
cheaper in proportion to single benches, they may in some cases be 
preferred to single ones. 

Tools of the best quality should always be procured; they are the 
cheapest in the long-run. 

It is also desirable that drawings and constructions of the models 
should be procured. 

In connection with this, it may be mentioned that the annual cost of 
timber and other materials in a small country school in Sweden, where 
10 to 15 children receive instruction, is from 10 to 20 kronor, exclusive of 
the outlay of replacing worn-out tools. 

The same materials for a class of 16 boys m England would cost about 
£1 10s. annually. Red deal pine is the best soft-wood for Slojd, and can 
be obtained at any good timber yard. Lime-tree, sycamore, and chestnut 
all make good substitutes for birch. The two former are very fine in the 
grain, and are good for scoops, bowls, etc. They are a little dearer than 
birch. American canary wood can also be recommended as a wood 
suitable for flat articles ; it is a little harder than deal, and works easily. 
This wood can be obtained anywhere, and is not dear. 

* The English prices for the tools are given on page 214. 

t The Swedish krona is worth Is. lid. Eighteen kronor = £1. 



INDEX. 



Absolute weight of timber, 51. 
Accuracy, habits of, 2, 14, 15. 
Adjustable bench, 65. 
„ ' bit, 112. 
„ handscrew, 69. 

„ planes, 102. 

Age of the Slojd-pupil, 17. 

„ of trees, 30. 
Aim of Slojd, 2. 
Air-tubes, 31, 32. 
Albuminoids in sap, 34. 
Alburnum, 32. 
Alder, the, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46, 48, 50, 

52, 53 ; the hoary-leaved, 53. 
America.n Canary wood, 204. 
Angle formed by the bevelled edge 
and front face of the plane-iron, 
95 ; by the bevelled edges of the 
axe, 88 ; by the face and front 
side of chisels, 90, 91 ; by the 
faces of the Slojd-knife, 88. 
Annual layers, concentric, 29-31. 
Apple, the, 38, 47, 50, 56. 
Area of Slojd-room, 20. 
Articles of luxury, 12. 
Articles, modelled, 12. 
„ rectangular, 12. 
„ rejected, 15. 
„ sale of, 26. 
Artificial hght in Slojd-room, 21. 
Artisan, work of the, 1. 
Ash, the, 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 53. 
Aspen, the, 35, 46, 48, 50, 54. 
Attachments of saw-blade, 82-84. 
Attention, habits of, 2. 
Auger-bit, the, 110. 
Autumn wood, 30-32. 
Axe, the, 7, 22, 47, 59, 60, 87, 88. 
Axle-fitting, 152. 



B 

Back bench-vice, the, 62, 63, 65, 66. 

Bark, 28. 

Bast, 28. 

Beam-compasses, 73, 74, 

Beech, the, 33-35, 38, 39, 42, 44, 46- 

48, 50-52, 55, 198. 
Bench, the, 62-67, 204. 
„ adjustable, 65. 
„ double, 65. 
„ Naas pattern, 64, 65. 
„ single, 62-64. 
„ Trainor's, 66, 67. 
Bench-drawer, the, 62, 64. 
Bench-pegs, 62, 63, 66. 
Bench-rails, 62, 64, 66. 
Bench-top, 62, 64-66. 
Bench-well, 62, 64, 66. 
Bench-set, the, 24, 201. 
Benches required, number of, 204. 
Bench-vice, back, 62, 63, 65, 66. 

„ front, 62, 63, 66. 
Bevel cut, 126. 
Bevel, mitre, 76. 
„ set, 76. 
„ wooden, 76. 
Bevelled edge-planing, 142. 
BeveUing, 134. 

„ with draw-knife, 144. 
Birch, the, 32, 38, 39, 42, 44, 46-48, 

50-52, 54, 196-198. 
Birch, figured, 46. 
Bits, 108-112. 
Blade of a saw, 77, 80. 
Blocking, 168. 

„ mortised, 168. 
Blocks, for table tops, 43. 
" Blue surface," 40, 43, 44. 
Bodily laboui-, 2, 8. 



206 



INDEX. 



Body, position of, during work, 21-24, 
127, 129, 133, 137, 139. 
Plates I.— YIII. 
Bolts, 62, 65. 

Boring, with bradawl, 144. 
„ with centre-bit, 132. 
„ with pin-bit, 132. 
„ with shell-bit, 132. 
Boss of a plane, 96, 98. 
Bow-compasses, 73. 
Bow-saw, the, 83. 

„ broad-webbed, 83, 85. 
Brace, the, 108, 109. 
„ American, 109. 
„ Swedish, 109. 
Bradawl, the, 112. 

„ boring with, 144. 
Broad-leaved trees, 30, 31, 33, 52. 
Brushes for glue, 120. 



Caliper-compasses, 74. 
Cambium, 28. 
Camphor, solution of, 45. 
Camphor-tree, 49. 
Canary wood, American, 204. 
" Captain " of Slojd-class, 25. 
Carpentry, 7, 8. 

Slojd, 6, 7, 21. 
Carving-tools, 89, 92, 93. 
Carving wood, 8. 
Cedar, the, 49. 
Cells, wood, 28. 
Cellulose, 29. 
Centre-bit, the, 22, 110, 111. 

„ boring with, 132. 

„ sharpening the, 111. 
Champhering, 146. 
Changes which wood undergoes, 35. 
Chestnut, the, 52, 55, 204. 
Chisel, the, 7, 89-91. 

„ bent, 93. 

„ firmer, 90. 

5, mortise, 91. 
Chiselling, concave, 138. 



ChiseUing, oblique, 136. 

„ perpendicular, 136. 
Chopping, 138. Plate VII. 
Chopping-block, 88. 
Circular sawing, 148. 
Clamping, dove-tail, 146. 
Clamps, 43. 

„ saw-sharpening, 79. 
Class-teaching, 16, 17. 
Cleavage of wood, 34. 
Colour of wood, 48, 49. 
Colouring matter, 34. 
Common dove-tailing, 150. 

„ mortise and tenon, 156. 
Compasses, 24, 73, 74. 
„ beam, 73, 74. 
„ bow, 73. 
„ caliper, 74. 
Compass-plane, the, 102. 

„ saw, 80, 86. 
Concave chiselling, 138. 

„ cut, 134. 

„ modelling with the plane, 164. 
Concealed tenoning, 166. 
Concentric annual layers, 29-31. 
Constituents of sap, 34, 35. 
Constructions, geometrical, 13, 204. 
Convex cut, 128. 

„ modelling with plane, 134. 

J, sawing, 134. 
Corky layer, the, 28. 
Cost of providing tools, 204. 

„ „ timber, &c., 204. 

Counter-sink drill, the, 110, 112. 
Cover of the plane, 95, 96. 
Cracking of timber, 36, 39, 40-43. 
Cramp, thumb-screw, 70. 
Cross-cut, the, 126. 
" Cross-grained " wood, 46. 
Cross-section of stem, 27, 28. 
Cut, bevel, 126. 
„ concave, 134. 
„ convex, 128. 
„ cross, 126. 
„ long, 126. 



INDEX. 



207 



Cut, oblique, 126. 

5, plane surface, 134. 
Cutting-gauge, the, 73. 

D 

Day-book, teacher's, 26. 
Deal, red, 204. 
Decay of timber, 43. 
Dexterity, technical, 3-5, 
Dove-tail clamping, 146. 

„ filletster, 103. 

„ saw, 86. 
Dove-tailing, 15, 73, 125. 

„ common, 150. 

,5 half -lap, 160. 

,, in thick wood, 156. 

„ notched, 164. 

., oblique, 162. 

, , single, at right angles, 148. 

Dowels, 124. 
Drawings, 13, 204. 
Drawings in perspective, 13. 
Draw-knife, the, 7, 89. 

„ bevelling with, 144. 

„ modelling with, 148. 

Dressing up with the smoothing- 
plane, 140 ; with spokeshave, 
138. 
« Dry-rot," 44. 
Durabihty of timber, 45, 51. 
Duramen, 32. 

E 

Ebony, 32, 47, 50, 57. 
Edge-grooving, half concealed, 164 ; 

oblique, 154. 
Edge-planing, 128. 

„ bevelled, 142. 

Edges, straight, 76, 77. 
Educational and practical Slojd, 1. 
Educational Slojd, aim of, 1, 2, 
Elasticity of timber, 48. 
Elder, the, 33. 
Elm, the, 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 44, 46-48, 

50, 51, 53. 
End-squaring, 140. 



English handscrew, 69. 

,, marking-gauge, 72. 
Exercises, the, 6, 10, 11, 60, 126-169, 

196, 199. 
Expansion-bit, the, 111, 112. 
Eye of the axehead, 88. 



Face of chisel, 90. 
Face-planing, 77, 132. 
Fermentation of sap, 43. 
Fibres of wood, 29. 
File, the, 22, 80, 105, 106. 

„ to clean, 106. 

„ to use, 106. 

„ triangular, 80. 
File-grade, the, 105. 
Filing, 132. 

Filletster, the dove-tail, 103. 
" Finer " kinds of manual work, 8. 
Fir, the, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, 39, 46, 48, 

50, 51, 52, 196. 
Firmer, the, 93. 

5, the corner, 93. 
Firmer-chisel, the, 90. 
Fitting in pegs, 142. 
Fixing hinges, 160. 
Fixing with wooden pegs, 148. 
Fixing with screws, 148, 
Fluting, 158. 
Frame-saw, the, 78, 82. 
Fungi, 44. 

G 

Gauge, cutting, 73. 

„ marking, 24, 71, 72, 
Gauging, 130. 

Geometrical constructions, 13. 
Glue, 21, 119-123. 

„ liquid, 120. 
Glue-brushes, 120. 

„ pot, 120. 
Gluemg, 121-123, 144. 

„ with aid of hand-screw, 154. 
Gouge, the, 89, 91, 

„ scooping out with, 152. 



208 



INDEX. 



Gouge, curved, 93. 

„ front feent, 93. 

„ parting, 93. 

„ spoon, 92. 

„ straight, 93. 
Gouging, oblique, 146. 

„ perpendicular, 144. 
Gouging with gouge and spoon-iron, 

138. 
Grain, against the, 49. 

„ endway of the, 49. 

„ lengthway of the, 49. 

„ with the, 49. 

„ the silver, 33. 
Graving with V tool or parting-tool, 

158. 
Grinding tools, 88, 115. 
Grinding-support, 116. 
Grindstone, the, 115, 116. 
Groove-jointing, 125. 
Groove-saw, 86, 87. 
Grooving, 73, 87. 
Gymnastics, 18, 21, 22. 

H 

Habits of accuracy, 2, 14, 15. 
5, attention, 2. 
„ industry, 2. 
„ order, 2. 
„ self-reliance, 2, 14. 
Half -concealed edge-grooving, 164. 
Half -lap dove-tailing, 160. 
Half -lapping, 158. 
Halving, 125. 

„ with knife, 140. 
Hammer, the, 113. 

„ the set, 167. 
Hand, use of the right and left, 22. 
Handle of a saw, 83. 
Hand-saw, the, 85. 
Handscrew, the, 68, 69. 
„ adjustable, 69. 

„ English, 69. 

„ iron, 70. 

„ wooden, 68. 



Handscrew, glueing with, 154. 
Hardness of timber, 46-48. 
Harmonious physical development, 

21, 22. 
Hazel, the, 48. 
Heart-wood, the, 32, 47. 
Height of Slojd-room, 20. 
High School series of models, 196. 
Hinges, fixing, 160, 
Hinge-plates, 112. 
Hinge-sinking, 160. 
Hold-fast, the, 67. 
Hole-rimer drill, 110, 112. 
Hollow, the, 102. 
Hollowing out with gouge, 152. 

„ with plane, 164. 
Hooping, 125, 166. 
Hoops for barrels, 89, 166. 
Horn of the plane, 94, 99. 
Hornbeam, the, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 

50, 52. 
Housing, 152. 

I 

Impregnation of timber, 42, 45. 
Individual instruction, 16. 
Industry, habits of, 2. 
Insects, attacks of, 44, 45. 
Instruction, individual, 16. 

„ intuitional, 13. 

„ time given to, 18. 

Intuitional instruction, 13. 
Iron handscrew, the, 70. 
„ plane, the, 100, 101. 



Jack-plane, the, 24, 98, 99. 
Jointing, 119, 125. 

„ plain, 96, 146. 
Juniper, the, 48-50, 52. 



K 

Knife, the, 7, 22, 24, 88, 89. 
Key of bench, 63. 
Key-hole saw, the, 154. 



INDEX. 



209 



Labour, bodily, 2, 8. 

Larch, the, 32, 38, 39, 48, 50-52. 

Light in Slojd-room, artificial, 21. 

Lignum vitae, 47, 50, 57. 

Lime, the, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 50, 56, 

204. 
Liquid glue, 1 20. 
Lock-fitting, 160. 
Long-cut, 126. 
Long oblique planing, 152. 
Long-sawing, 128. 
Luxury, articles of, 12. 

M 

Mahogany, 38, 39, 49, 50, 57. 

Mallet, the, 113. 

Maple, the, 33, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 50, 

56. 
Marker, the, 71, 72. 
Marking-gauge, the, 24, 71, 72. 

„ English, 72. 

„ Johansson's, 72. 

„ Lundmark's, 71. 

Marking-point, the, 71. 
Measurements, 70, 71. 
Medulla, the, 33. 
Medullary rays, the, 28, 33. 
Metal plates, &c., sinking and fixing, 

144. 
Method, 9. 

Metre-measure, the, 13, 24, 70, 71. 
Mitre-bevel, the, 76. 
Mitreing, 125, 156. 
Mitre-shooting, 68. 
Modelled articles, 12. 
Modelling, convex, 134. 
ModeUing with the draw-knife, 148 ; 

with the spokeshave, 138. 
Models, the, 11-14, 196 ; rejected, 15. 
Monitor of Slojd- class, the, 25. 
Mortise and tenon, common, 156. 
Mortise and tenon-jointing, 125. 
Mortise-chisel, the, 91. 



Mortise blocking, 168. 
Muriatic acid, 45. 

N 

Nailing, 123, 144. 
Nails, beat, 123. 

„ cut, 123. 
Needle-leaved trees, 30-32, 34, 40, 44. 

49, 52. 
Notched dove-tailing, 164. 



Oak, the, 31-35, 39, 46-52, 55, 198. 

Obhque chiselling, 136. 

„ cut, 126. 

„ dove-taUing, 162. 

„ edge-grooving, 154. 

„ gouging, 146. 

„ paring, 136. 

,, planing, 140. 

„ sawing, 138. 

„ slotting, 162. 
Obstacle-planing, 136. 
Oil-paint, 45. 

Oils, volatile, 35. / 

Oilstone, the, 117. 

„ method of using, 117. 
Oilstone-sHp, 118. 
Order, habits of, 2. 
Osier, the, 48. 
Outside-pan of glue-pot, 119, 120. 

P 

Panel-grooving, 154. 
Panels of doors, 43. 
Paring, perpendicular, 136. 

„ oblique, 136. 
Parting-gouge, 93. 
Parting-tool, bent, 93. 

„ straight, 93. 

Pear, the, 39, 47, 50, 56. 
Peg of a saw, 83. 
Pegs, fitting in, 142. 
Pegs, fixing with wooden, 148. 
Perpendicular chiselling, 136. 
„ gouging, 144. 



210 



INDEX. 



Perpendicular paring, 136. 

Perspective drawings, 13. 

Physical development, harmonious, 

21, 22. 
Pin-bit, the, 110. 
Pincers, 112, 113. 
Pine, the, 32, 34, 196-199. 
Pins, wooden, 124. 
Pith, the, 28, 30, 33, 41. 
Plain -jointing, 96, 146. 
Plane, the, 22, 61, 93-104. 

„ the adjustable, 102. 

„ the compass, 102. 

„ the hollow, 102. 

„ the iron, 100, 101. 

„ the jack, 24, 98, 99. 

„ old woman's tooth, 102, 103. 

„ the rebate, 101. 

„ the round, 101. 

„ the smoothing, 24, 60, 96, 100, 
101. 

„ the tootliing, 123. 

„ the trying, 24, 60, 96, 99, 100. 
Plane, concave modelling with, 164 ; 
convex modelling with, 134 ; 
hollowing out with, 164. 
Plane, setting the, 98. 
Plane-cover, the, 95, 96. 
Plane-horn, the, 94, 99. 
Plane-iron, the, 94, 96-98. 
Plane-sole, the, 94, 97. 
Plane-stock, the, 94. 
Plane-surface cut, the, 134. 
Planing across the grain, 148. 

„ with round plane, 148. 

„ with shooting board, 150. 

„ bevelled edge, 142. 

„ edge, 128. 

„ face, 77, 132. 

„ long oblique, 152. 

„ oblique, 140. 

„ stop, or obstacle, 136. 

„ wedge, 148. 
Phers, flat-jawed, 114. 

„ round-jawed, 114. 



Plough, the, 104. 

Plugging, 142. 

Plumbago, 64. 

Poplar, the, 52, 54. 

Pores in wood, the, 31. 

Position of the body during work, 

21-24, 127, 129, 133, 137, 139. 

Plates I— VIII. 
Preliminary exercises, 11. 
Projections, 13. 
Punch, the, 124. 
Punching, 144. 
Pupils in Slojd-class, number of, 18. 

R 

Radial section, 27, 28. 

Rails of the bench, 62, 64, 66. 

Rasps, 106. 

" Raw edge," 117. 

Rebating, 158. 

Rebate-plane, the, 101. 

Rebates, dove-tail, 104. 

Rectangular articles, 12. 

Red deal, 204. 

Resin, 32, 35, 43, 45. 

Resin-canals, 32. 

Rowan, the, 50, 56. 

Rule, the two-foot, 13, 24, 71. 

Ruler, the, 71. 

Rules for the Slojd- teacher, 24. 



Sand-paper, 25, 107, 108. 
Sale of articles, 26. 
Sap, the, 28, 34.' 

„ constituents of, 34, 35. 

„ crude or ascending, 34. 

„ elaborated, 34. 

„ fermentation of, 43. 

„ removal of, 42, 44, 45. 
Sap-wood, the, 32, 47. 
Saw, the, 22, 25, 47, 61, 77. 

„ the bow, 83. 

„ the broad- webbed bow, 83, 85. 

,, the compass, 80, 86. 



INDEX. 



211 



Saw, the dove-tail, 86. 

„ the frame, 78, 82. 

„ the groove, 86, 87. 

„ the hand, 85. 

„ the tenon, 86. 

„ the turn, 85. 

„ the wood, 78, 81. 
Saw, frame of, 60. 
Saw, setting the, 78-81. 
Saw, sharpening the, 80, 81. 
Saw, working the, 84. 
Saw-blade, the, 77, 80. 
Saw-blade, attachments of the, 82-84. 
Saw-cut, width of the, 79. 
Saw-peg, the, 83. 
Saw-set, the, 79, 80. 
Saw-stretcher, 83. 
Saw-sharpening clamps, 79. 
Sawing, circular, 148. 
„ convex, 134. 
„ long, 128. 
„ obhque, 138. 
„ up and down, 168. 
,, wave, 134. 
Sawing off, 128. 
Sawing with compass-saw, 154. 

„ with tenon-saw, 134, 
Scraper, the, 24, 106, 107- 
Scraping, 107, 136. 
Screw-driver, the, 110, 112, 114. 
Screw-driver bit, the, 110, 112. 
Screwing together, 122, 124, 148. 
Screws, fixing with, 148. 
Screws, wood, 124, 125. 
Seasoning of timber, 40-42, 44. 
Section of stem, cross, 27, 28. 
„ radial, 27, 28. 

„ tangential, 27, 28. 

Self-rehance, habits of, 2, 14. 
Septa, transverse, 33. 
Set-bevel, the, 76. 
Set-hammer, the, 167. 
Setting out, 70, 152. 
Setting the plane, 98. 
Setting the saw, 78-81. 



Setting-tongs, 80. 
Sharp tools, 24, 25, 61, 115. 
Sharpening the centre-bit. 111. 
„ the saw, 80, 81. 
„ tools, 88, 115. 

Shell-bit, the, 110. 
Shootmg-board, the, 67, 68. 
Shoulder of chisel, 90. 
Shrmkage of timber, 36-39, 45. 
Silver grain, the, 33. 
Single dove-tailing at right angles, 

148. 
Sinking and fixing metal plates, &c., 

144. 
Situation of Slojd-room, 20. 
Size of tools, 59, 60. 
Slojd, aim of, 2. 

„ educational, 1. 
Slojd and gymnastics, 21. 
Slojd-carpentry, 6, 7, 21. 
Slojd knife, 88, 89, 
Slojd-room, 18-21. Plate IX. 
Slotting, 125, 156. 

5, obhque, 162. 
Smoothing up, 140. 
Smoothing with the spokeshave, 1 38. 
Smoothing-plane, the, 24, 60, 96, 100, 

101. 
Smoothing-plane, dressing up with 

the, 140. 
Sole of the plane, 94, 97. 
Specific gravity of timber, 50. 
Spindle of marking-gauge, 71-73. 
Spokeshave, the, 104. 

„ modelling "with the, 138. 

„ smoothing up with the, 138. 
Spoon-gouge, the, 92. 
Spoon-iron, the, 7, 92. 
Sprigs, 123. 
Spring-wood, 29. 
Square, the, 24, 74, 75, 76. 

,, steel, 75. 

„ wooden, 75. 

„ to test the, 75, 76. 
Square-grooving, 152. 



212 



INDEX. 



Square-shooting, 150. 

Squaring, 130. 

Starch, 34. 

Staving, 164. 

Steaming, 42, 45. 

Stock of marking gauge, 71, 72. 

„ of plane, 94. 

„ of set bevel, 76. 

J, of square, 75. 
Stop champher-plane, 137. 
Stop -planing, 136. 
Straight-edges, 76, 77. 
Straight-fibred wood, 29, 46, 94. 
Strength of timber, 45, 46. 
Stretcher of saw, 83. 
String of saw, 83. 
Sugar, 34. 

Support for grinding, 116. 
Supporb for hand, in jack-plane, 99. 
Surface-cut plane, 134. 
Swelhng of timber, 36, 39, 45. 
Sycamore, the, 204. 



Tang of knife, 88. 
,, of chisel, 90. 
Tangential section of stem, 27, 28. 
Tannic acid, 35, 43, 45. 
Teacher of Slojd, the, 2-6, 61. 
Technical dexterity, 3-5. 
Teeth of the saw, 77, 78, 81, 84. 
Tenon, common mortise and, 156. 
Tenon-saw, the, 86. 
Tenoning, concealed, 166. 
Texture of timber, 48. 
Thumb-screw cramp, the, 70. 
Tightener of saw, 83, 84. 
Timber (see also Wood), 27. 

„ absolute weight of, 51. 

„ colour of, 48, 49. 

,, decay of, 43. 

„ durability of, 45, 51. 

,, elasticity of, 48. 

„ hardness of, 46, 48. 

„ seasoning of, 40-42, 44. 



Timber, smell of, 48, 49. 

„ Specific gravity of, 50, 

„ strength of, 45, 46. 

„ texture of, 48. 

„ time for cutting down, 40, 44. 

„ toughness of, 48. 

„ warping of, 36, 40-42. 

„ weight of, 50. 
Time given to instruction, 18. 
Tools required for different numbers of 

pupils, 201-203 
Tools, choice of, 59-61, 204. 

„ cost of providing, 204. 

„ cupboard for, 118. Plate XL 

„ sharp, 24, 25, 61. 

,, sharpening, 88, 115-118. 

„ size of, 59, 60. 

„ toy, 59. 
Tool-cupboard, the, 118. Plate XI. 
Toothing -plane, the, 123. 
Trainer's bench, 66, 67. 
Trammel-heads, 74. 
Transverse septa, 33. 
Trees, broad-leaved, 30, 31, 33, 52. 

„ needle-leaved, 30-32, 34, 40, 44, 
49, 52. 
Trying-plane, the, 24, 60, 96, 99, 100. 
Turning, 8. 
Turn- saw, the, 85. 
Turpentine, 35. 

u 

Up-and-down sawing, 168. 



V 



Varnish, 45. 
Vessels, 31, 49. 
Vice-tongue, 63. 
Volatile oils, 35. 
V-tool, 158. 



w 



Walls of the Slojd-room, 20. 
Walnut, the, 38, 39, 42, 47, 50, 56. 
Warming the Slojd-room, 20, 21. 



INDEX. 



213 



Warping of timber, 36, 40-42. 
Water- capacity, 35, 36. 
Wave-sawing, 134. 
Wedge of the plane, the, 94, 96, 97. 
Wedge-planing with smoothing -plane, 

148. 
Weight of timber, 50. 

„ absolute, 51. 
White-beam, the, 39. 46-48, 56. 
Width of saw-cut, 79. 
Willow, the, 35. 
Winding-laths, 76. 
Windows of the Slojd-room, 20. 
Wire-cutter, the, 113. 
Wood (see also Timber), 27. 

„ autumn, 30-32. 

„ colour of, 48, 49. 

„ cross-grained, 46. 



Wood, spring, 29. 

„ straight- fibred, 29, 46, 94. 

„ work in hard, 140. 
Wooden bevel, the, 76. 

„ handscrew, the, 68. 
Wooden pins, 124. 
Wood-carving, 8. 
Wood-ceUs, 28. 
Wood-cement, 121. 
Wood-fibres, 29. 
Wood-saw, the, 78, 8L 
Wood-screws, 124, 125. 
Wood-Slojd, 6. 
Work in hard wood, 140. 
Working the saw, 84. 



Yen, the, 33. 












'^'A. 



